The Prophetic Books

Prophets in the Jewish and Christian Canons

Both Jewish and Christian Bibles contain a canonical section labeled Prophets and include much of the same material. The two Bibles, however, differ in key ways. In the Jewish Bible (Tanakh), the Prophets constitute the second of three canonical sections, following the Torah (Genesis through Deuteronomy) and preceding the Writings (Psalms through Chronicles). The Jewish Bible further divides the Prophets into the Former Prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings) and Latter Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi). Hosea through Malachi are considered a single book designated as the Book of the Twelve since, due to their small size, ancient scribes often copied them onto a single scroll. These twelve smaller books also are known as “minor [in the sense of short] prophets,” as opposed to the larger books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, which are called the “major prophets.”

In Christian Bibles, the books of Joshua through Kings likewise follow Deuteronomy but are categorized as Historical Books along with other narratives such as Ruth, which is inserted after Judges, and Chronicles. Prophets in the Christian canon include Isaiah through Malachi, as well as the books of Lamentations and Daniel, and appear as the final canonical section of the Old Testament. In Roman Catholic Bibles, an additional book, Baruch, follows Jeremiah. The Orthodox Christian Bible follows Jeremiah with not only Baruch and Lamentations but also the Letter of Jeremiah. The canonical order in Orthodox Bibles places the minor prophets prior to the major prophets.

These canonical placements reflect the different ways in which different confessional communities have understood the prophets. Jewish tradition interprets the Prophets as supporting the message of the Torah, a view that is underscored in Jewish liturgy by pairing a prophetic passage (haftarah) with the weekly sequential Torah reading. Christian tradition historically has interpreted the prophets as predicting or at least foreshadowing the coming of Jesus and thus has preferred the placement of the Prophets immediately prior to the Gospels. The inclusion of Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah, as well as the Orthodox ordering of Prophets, reflects codices of the Septuagint, the ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible used by early Christians.

Prophecy in the Ancient Near East

Throughout the ancient Near East, the gods were understood to communicate with humans through various means, some requiring the interpretation of trained specialists and some depending on those able to discern the divine message without formal training. Documents excavated from the Mesopotamian cities of Mari and Nineveh describe both diviners who found clues to divine activity in celestial movements, the flight patterns of birds (augury), and the entrails of sacrificed animals (extispicy), and also prophets who claimed direct communication with the gods, often though not always while in a state of ecstasy. Most of the oracles preserved at Nineveh were addressed to the kings Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal, who ruled in the seventh century bce, and some were gathered into collections, likely stored in the royal archives for ongoing consultation. The Mari letters, dating mostly from the first half of the eighteenth century bce, report prophetic oracles to kings as well, many pronounced by female prophets.

In some ways, the Hebrew Bible characterizes Israelite prophets as similar to figures described in the records from Mari and Nineveh. In the Former Prophets, Jonathan's disobedience of his father's wartime restrictions is discerned by the casting of lots (Urim and Thummim, 1 Sam 14.41–42), and Saul is possessed by the spirit of God (1 Sam 10.10–13). Israelite prophets anoint kings (1 Sam 9.15–21; 16.1–13; 1 Kings 1.32–40), advise kings (2 Sam 7), and speak in the rhetorical style of “messenger speech” (“Thus says the Lord”). In the Latter Prophets, call narratives (see especially Isa 6; Jer 1; Ezek 1.1–3.11; see also Am 7.14–17) depict the prophets as compelled by the Lord to deliver a message, and their compliance is reported in the rhetorical style of messenger speech. The superscriptions to the Latter Prophets, the opening formulas that indicate their time and place, characterize each prophet as delivering God's message in a particular circumstance and label the speech to follow as that of God: it is the “word” which came from the Lord (e.g., Jer 1.1; Ezek 1.2), an “oracle” (e.g., Nah 1.1; Hab 1.1), or a “vision” that a prophet “saw” (e.g., Isa 1.1; Ob 1). Some of the prophetic figures in these books announce a message to leaders of ancient Israel and Judah (e.g., Isa 7.1–17; Hag 2.20–23).

In other ways, the biblical portrait of prophets diverges from ancient Near Eastern models. The Latter Prophets are much less supportive of sitting kings than are the Nineveh and Mari oracles and predominantly address the nation as a whole. Oracles of judgment against other nations and their leadership dominate the Latter Prophets, with idealized future kings positively contrasted with the reality of current kings (Isa 11.1–9; Jer 33.14–22). In contrast to the ancient Near East, unsolicited communication with the divine is strongly preferred over divination. We find condemnation of “soothsayers” (Mic 5.12 [Heb 5.11]), necromancy (Isa 8.19), and liver omens (Ezek 21.21 [Heb 21.26]). Some passages equate various forms of divination, including Jer 29.8, in which both prophets and diviners receive dreams, and Joel 2.28 (Heb 3.1), in which “prophesy,” “dream dreams,” and “see visions” appear in parallel; yet true prophets are often characterized as reluctant messengers, as reflected in Jeremiah's complaint to the Lord that “you have overpowered me, and you have prevailed” (Jer 20:7).

The Hebrew term used for the prophets is nabiʾ, a noun likely derived from the verb “call.” The female prophets Deborah, Huldah, and Noadiah (Judg 4.4; 2 Kings 22.14; Neh 6.14) are designated with the feminine form nebi’ah, as is the woman who bears a son in Isa 8.3. Other Hebrew terms employed for prophets are roʾeh (“seer”) and ḥozeh (“visionary, seer”), which are sometimes explicitly equated with nabiʾ (1 Sam 9.9; 2 Sam 24.11; 2 Kings 17.13).

Prophetic Books

The historical references within the Latter Prophets span three primary periods of Israelite and Judean history. Isaiah, Hosea, Amos, Jonah, and Micah refer to persons and events in the eighth century bce, when the Neo-Assyrian empire controlled the ancient Near East and dominated Israel and Judah. Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah reflect the period of transition between Assyrian and Babylonian hegemony in the late seventh century. Jeremiah and Obadiah speak of Babylonian control of Judah in the early sixth century, and Ezekiel and Daniel include references to the Babylonian exile. Haggai and Zechariah are explicitly dated to the Persian period, when some Judeans returned to former ancestral lands, and references within the book of Malachi point to the Persian period as well. In light of these historical references, some interpreters categorize prophetic figures by their era, referring to Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian period prophets or, alternately, preexilic, exilic, and postexilic prophets.

Historical references within the books, however, do not necessarily indicate the time of the book's composition. For example, Jonah refers to a king of Nineveh, which was destroyed in 612, but shows strong indications of a postexilic date, well after the fall of Nineveh. Despite its setting within the Babylonian exile, the book of Daniel reflects detailed knowledge of events during the Hellenistic period, including the events preceding the Maccabean revolt in 167–160 bce. Within some individual books, vocabulary and style shift, and different geographical and chronological settings are presupposed. For example, in much of Isa 1–39, Isaiah of Jerusalem addresses the military and religious conflicts of eighth-century Judah, while Isa 40–55 optimistically proclaims the end of the Babylonian exile and speaks of Cyrus, the Persian king of the fifth century; yet differently, Isa 56–66 offers a pessimistic assessment of life upon the exiles’ return to Jerusalem. Micah 1–3 grounds the prophet's message within the reigns of the eighth-century Judean kings Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, while Mic 4 presupposes a later time, referring to the Babylonian exile (4.10) and sharing with other Persian-period literature the hope for the restoration of the monarchy and Jerusalem's return to world prominence. Clearly, in their current form the prophetic books are not verbatim transcripts of ancient pronouncements but rather carefully crafted literary productions that frequently include material originating in different times.

Editorial activity also is evident between the books of the Latter Prophets. Some near-identical content appears in multiple books (Isa 2.2–4; Mic 4.1–5; Ob 1b–4; Jer 49.12–16), and oracles of salvation conclude most books, even those such as Amos which are otherwise devoted to judgment (Am 9.11–15).

Additional signs of editing appear in the superscriptions of the prophetic books, which follow closely the language and chronology of the Former Prophets, known by scholars as the Deuteronomistic History, given the collection's ideological slant toward the perspective of the book of Deuteronomy. These similarities suggest that a common scribal circle compiled both the Former and the Latter Prophets, perhaps intending them to be read in tandem. Together, the two collections portray a chain of prophets extending from Moses to Malachi and underscore the themes of the divine control of history paired with divine graciousness.

In the past few decades, many scholars have argued that the incorporation of Hosea through Malachi into the Book of the Twelve reflects not simply a scribal economy that was concerned to copy small books onto a single scroll but also an intentional effort to create a coherent collection. Arguments for coherence point to catchwords and quotations connecting the books, such as the citation of Amos in Joel (Joel 3.16; Am 1.2) and the commonalities in vocabulary and theme between Am 9 and words of the immediately following book in Ob 16–21. Other scholars have found arguments for an intentionally crafted Book of the Twelve unconvincing, suggesting that coherence is in the eye of the beholder.

Whatever the merits of the theories regarding the Twelve, the final form of all of the Latter Prophets appears to have been the work of postexilic editors. Earlier material has been shaped so that the books conform to the postexilic understanding of prophecy outlined in Zech 7.7–14 and 8.11–17: Jerusalem was destroyed for its sins, just as the prophets had warned, but now God intends salvation for Jerusalem. Other postexilic books reflect a similar understanding of prophecy (2 Chr 24.19; 36.15–16; Neh 9.30–31), suggesting that in the Persian period earlier prophecy was understood to explain the reason for the fall of Israel and Judah as well as for the fall of various nations, and to offer hope that Yahweh would defeat those who prevent the people from enjoying their land peacefully.

Some redaction critics, scholars who study the process by which biblical books were redacted or edited, believe that the application of particular critical tools can unravel the stitching by which the prophetic books were woven together, separating layers of later additions from the original words of the prophet. This approach was especially prominent through the mid-twentieth century. In the present, an increasing number of scholars focus attention instead on the Persian-period final form of the books. Readers will find different perspectives on this scholarly debate reflected in the introductions and annotations in this edition of the New Oxford Annotated Bible.

Interpreting the Prophetic Books

Genres/Forms

Prophetic literature draws from a consistent roster of genres, also known as “forms.” Most common in the sayings attributed to preexilic prophets are “oracles of judgment.” Announcing that Israel and/or Judah will be punished for their sins, oracles of judgment follow a consistent pattern, offering the reason for judgment and issuing a verdict of condemnation (e.g., Mic 3.9–12; Am 4.1–3); a variation of this genre is the “woe oracle” which laments the coming punishment (in the NRSV often translated as “ah” or “alas”; see, e.g., Am 5.18–20; 6.1–7). The genre known as the “oracle of salvation” appears occasionally in preexilic prophets but dominates collections associated with the exilic or postexilic periods. Isaiah 40–55, often designated Second Isaiah because it derives from a time later than the eighth-century prophet Isaiah, is replete with such promises (e.g., Isa 41; 43; 49), as is material considered to be postexilic in Micah (Mic 4–5).

Other prophetic genres include the “trial speech/covenant lawsuit,” which uses legal language to depict the accused (Judah or Israel) on trial for crimes (e.g., Isa 1; Hos 4) and the “prophetic disputation,” in which the prophet refutes the claims of others (e.g., Hag 1:2–11; Mal 1:1:2–2:9). “Symbolic action reports” at times accompany prophetic speech, as when Jeremiah buries a loin cloth (Jer 13.1–11) and Ezekiel lies before a model of Jerusalem under siege (Ezek 4). “Prophetic liturgies” mirror the vocabulary and style of Temple liturgies, such as the Song of Thanksgiving in Isa 12.1–6 (compare Ex 15 and Ps 105) and the prayer of Hab 3, punctuated with musical notations (compare Ps 7).

Many prophetic books contain “oracles against the nations,” often extended sayings pronouncing God's judgment on nations other than Israel or Judah. Examples include Isa 13–23, Jer 46–51, Ezek 25–32, Nahum, and Obadiah. The ultimate crime of nations is their pride, failing to recognize the Lord's superiority over and ultimate control of their destinies, though the nations’ crimes against Judah are also punished. In Amos, oracles against other nations (Am 1.3–2.3) foreshadow the condemnation of Judah and Israel (Am 2.4–16).

Prophetic books use these genres in different ways and for different purposes. Some prophets announce total destruction (e.g., Zeph 1), while others offer hope that a small remnant of the people might survive and rebuild after the inevitable disaster (e.g., Isa 11.11). Amos lambasts Israel's failure to care for the poor (Am 4.1–4), Micah condemns the rapacity of Judah's landowners (Mic 2.1–4), Hosea blames Israel for worshiping deities other than the Lord (Hos 1–3), and Ezekiel blames worship abominations for the departure of divine glory from the Temple (Ezek 8–9).

Style

Prophetic literature is primarily poetry, printed in the NRSV in verse. It utilizes a wide range of literary tropes, including metaphor, simile, alliteration, assonance, hyperbole, irony, repetition, parallelism, and wordplay. Symbolic names are given to children in Isa 7–8 (Shear-jashub, “a remnant shall return”; Maher-shallal-hashbaz, “the spoil speeds, the prey hastens”; Immanuel, “God with us”) and in Hosea 1–2 (Jezreel, “God sows”; Lo-ruhamah, “not pitied”; Lo-ammi, “not my people”). In Micah and elsewhere the names of cities are linked with their fate: Beth-leaphrah (“house of dust”) should roll itself in the dust (Heb ʿaphar, Mic 1.10) and Achzib is “deception” (Heb ʾachzab) (Mic 1.14). In Am 8.1–3, the prophet's vision of a piece of fruit (Heb qayits) is interpreted by the deity as a sign of Israel's end (Heb qets), and in Jer 1.11–12 an almond tree (Heb shaqed) confirms that the deity is watching (Heb shoqed).

One distinctive feature of prophetic style is comparison. Through episodic similes and extended metaphors, the prophets cast one thing as another. Yahweh is “a garland of glory, and a diadem of beauty” (Isa 28.5–6) and “will be like the dew to Israel; he shall blossom like the lily” (Hos 14.5); Zion is “like a shelter in a cucumber field” (Isa 1.8). Drawing heavily from the conceptual domain of human relationships, prophetic metaphor often reflects the patriarchal assumptions of ancient Israel. Yahweh's power is depicted through masculine images—warrior, father, husband, and king—while divine anguish is depicted as a woman's cry in childbirth or a mother's care for an infant. The dependency and infidelity of Israel (and other nations) are typified in feminine terms—daughter, wife, and whore—while chosenness is compared to the favor given a firstborn son. The characterization of Yahweh and Israel as husband and wife, often dubbed “the marriage metaphor,” is explicitly outlined in Hos 1–2 and appears in most of the prophetic books (e.g., Isa 54.5; Jer 3.20; Ezek 16; 23).

The prophetic books often describe the day of coming punishment as “the day of the Lord,” using powerful and violent imagery. Zephaniah describes the day of the Lord as a day of wrath, distress, anguish, ruin, devastation, darkness, and gloom (Zeph 1.15); not only humans but animals, birds, fish, and “everything” will be swept away from the face of the earth (Zeph 1.2–3). According to Isaiah, on the Lord's “day of vengeance” (Isa 34.8) the deity appears as a warrior who devastates Edom with the sword (34.5), accompanied by profuse amounts of blood (34.6), smoke (34.10), and other signs. Throughout the prophetic books, the reckoning of the day of the Lord can bring salvation to Israel and Judah by judging enemy nations (e.g., Isa 13, 34, 63; Jer 46; Zech 14.1–9) and/or it can bring devastation on Israel and/or Judah for their sins (e.g., Am 5.18–20; Ezek 7.1–20).

Theology/Worldview

The prophetic literature assumes and perpetuates the view that God uses other nations both to punish and to save Israel and Judah. Assyria is the rod of God's anger (Isa 10.5) and Babylon is the war club in God's hands (Jer 51.20). In Second Isaiah, Cyrus, the Persian king who is envisioned as ending the exile, is called God's anointed (Isa 45.1)—Heb mashiaḥ, the basis for English “messiah.”

The prophetic conviction that Israel's God directs geopolitics serves, theologically, to underscore God's sovereignty, even in the face of national defeat. It also invites engagement with postcolonial criticism. Understanding the imperial context under which prophetic literature was finalized suggests that the literature's refusal to acknowledge the ultimate power of foreign empires serves as a form of resistance. By focusing on the fate of nations and the restoration of Jerusalem's glory and honor, however, the prophetic literature devotes little attention to the fate of individuals and the human suffering endured during “punishment.” For example, although the book of Amos champions the cause of the poor, it proclaims that all Israel will fall in war, and although Micah criticizes those who drive women and children from their homes (Mic 2.9), its vision of an idyllic future mentions only the peaceful land ownership of men (Mic 4.4; lit., “a man . . . under his own fig tree”). Some prophetic collections do suggest the differing fates of those within the community, such as Mal 3.13–18, which distinguishes between the wicked and the righteous, and Isa 57.18–21, which offers peace for the contrite but no peace for the wicked.

Prophecy and Apocalyptic

Some scholars discern within postexilic prophetic literature the seeds of apocalyptic thought. Apocalypses such as Revelation, 1 Enoch, and 3 Baruch are characterized by the periodization of history, accounts of otherworldly journeys, the belief that the future will be known only by the revelation of divine secrets by angels, and the conviction that God's future salvation will require a radical disjunction with the established course of human history. The visions of Second Zechariah (Zech 9–14) seem to move in this direction, calling for the end of the created order and envisioning Yahweh straddling two parts of the Mount of Olives. Ezekiel 37–39 and Isa 24–27 are sometimes designated “protoapocalyptic” for their symbolism of evil powers and anticipation of cosmic collapse.

That early Christians linked prophecy with apocalyptic is evident in their inclusion of the book of Daniel within the Prophetic canon. Although the book does not open with a superscription, utilize standard prophetic forms, or call Daniel a “prophet,” it portrays Daniel's ability to interpret dreams and signs. Daniel 7–12 records a series of visions, replete with complex symbolism, regarding the fates of nations and rulers. In apocalypses, prophets and visionaries no longer experience direct access of the divine but through an intermediary: While the visions of earlier prophets were interpreted by the prophet himself or by God (Jer 1; Am 7–8), in apocalyptic books such as Daniel a third (angelic) party interprets the vision. Daniel presents history as predetermined and not contingent on the actions of Israel and Judah, and earlier prophets such as Jeremiah are to be consulted rather than emulated (Dan 9.2)

Julia M. O’Brien