Joshua

Name and Location in Canon

The book is named after Joshua, depicted as the apprentice and successor to Moses; according to it, Joshua was the military commander in the conquest of Canaan and the administrator of the allotment of that land to the Israelite tribes. In Num 13.16, Moses renames Hoshea (Heb hoshe˓a, “salvation”) Joshua (Heb yehoshu˓a, “the Lord is salvation/help”), adding the divine name Yahweh to his name.

The book of Joshua is the sixth book in both the Jewish and Christian canons, the first book of the Former Prophets or the first book of the so‐called Historical Books, respectively (see “Introduction to the Historical Books”, pp. 315–19.)

Authorship and Date of Composition

The authorship of the book of Joshua is unknown. Some types of sources for the book’s composition are identifiable (for example, the border descriptions and city lists in chs 14–19), though their origin and date are disputed. The historiographic materials used in the book of Joshua correspond to those found in the ancient Near East as a whole. These include traditional stories, etiologies, boundary and town lists, summary accounts and lists, accounts patterned after redundant annalistic documents, poetry (from the Book of Jashar, 10.12–13) and burial reports. These have been woven together with ritual and covenantal materials and other matters of priestly interest to communicate the book’s message.

Connections between the book of Joshua and the preceding books led many scholars, through the midtwentieth century, to posit a “Hexateuch” (six books), with the book of Joshua completing the first five books of the Bible, the Pentateuch—the Hexateuch having as its main theme the promise of the land and its eventual conquest. These scholars generally understood Joshua to be comprised of Pentateuchal sources: a prophetic historical narrative (JE) constituting most of (1–12); a priestly version (P), recounting the conquest and division of the land (13–22); and a group of Deuteronomistic additions and editing. From the period following the World War II, many scholars viewed Joshua as part of a large historical work, the Deuteronomistic History, extending from Deuteronomy through 2 Kings; this work is viewed as separate from the first four books (Genesis through Numbers), which were called the Tetrateuch (four books). This view downplayed connections with the Pentateuchal sources and stressed the book’s connections in vocabulary and theology with Deuteronomy and the following books of the Former Prophets. More recently, a few scholars have treated Joshua as a middle book in a still larger composition from Genesis through 2 Kings (an Enneateuch, nine books). At the beginning of the twenty‐first century, an erosion of the Deuteronomistic History hypothesis has led some scholars to propose that Joshua was an independent book written during the postexilic period. While the final edition may date from the postexilic period, one major early edition may date to the late seventh century bce.

Structure and Contents

The book of Joshua describes a conquest of Canaan and its allotment to the Israelite tribes. Through well‐known traditional stories (e.g., Rahab and the scouts, the crossing of the Jordan River, the capture of Jericho) as well as nonnarrative lists and ritual texts, the book portrays the fulfillment of God’s covenantal promise to Israel’s ancestors that their descendants would possess the land. Moreover, these stories challenge the book’s readers to live in obedience to the Deuteronomic covenant so that they also will receive God’s blessings in the land.

The book is somewhat symmetrical, as the following outline illustrates:

I. The conquest	1.1–12.24
A. Preparation for the conquest	1.1–5.12
The commission of Joshua	1.1–18
Story of the scouts and Rahab	2.1–24
The crossing of the Jordan	3.1–5.1
Final preparatory events at Gilgal	5.2–12
B. Conquest of the land	5.13–12.24
Central campaign	5.13–8.35
Jericho	5.13–6.27
Achan and Ai	7.1–8.29
Covenant renewal as land grant: Shechem	8.30–35
The southern and northern campaigns	9.1–11.15
Introductory statement	9.1–2
Southern campaign	9.3–10.43
Northern campaign	11.1–15
Summary of total conquest	11.16–23
A selective list of defeated cities’ kings	12.1–24
II. The allotment of the land	13.1–24.33
B.′ Division of the land	13.1–21.45
Land remaining	13.1–7
Transjordanian tribal allotment	13.8–33
Cisjordanian tribal allotment	14.1–19.51
Introduction to the process of allotment	14.1–5
Judah and Joseph allotments	14.6–17.18
Seven other tribal allotments	18.1–19.51
Summary of the process of allotment	19.51
Allotments to persons of marginal status	20.1–21.42
Cities of refuge	20.1–9
Levitical cities	21.1–42
Ironic conclusion	21.43–45
A.′Epilogue to the conquest and allotment	22.1–24.33
Misunderstanding with the Transjordanian tribes	22.1–34
Concluding charges	23.1–24.28
Appendixes	24.29–33

Interpretation

The book should not be read as straightforward history—it telescopes and simplifies what was a long and complex process of occupation of the land by the Israelite tribes. Some details are lacking (e.g., how the Israelites came into possession of Shechem, 8.30–35), while the other events narrated in the book are selectively arranged to heighten the book’s message. Thus the book’s presentation of reality does not necessarily reflect the course of events. For example, a main theme of the book is a swift and complete conquest of the land, while most archaeological evidence suggests its gradual settlement (see also 15.63; 16.10; 17.12–13; Judg 1). Consequently, archaeological excavations, together with sociological and anthropological analyses, must be used alongside the book to understand the early history of Israel in the land.

Several literary devices and themes characterize the book. First, the structure of the book (see outline) has two main divisions: the conquest (1.1–12.24) and the allotment of the land (13.1–24.33). Each main division contains two subdivisions: A: preparations for the conquest (1.1–5.12) and B: the conquest’s campaigns (5.13–12.24); B′: the allotment of the conquered land (13.1–21.45) and A′; epilogue to the conquest and allotment (22.1–24.33). The body of the book (5.13–21.45) is bracketed by introductory and concluding materials (1.1–5.12; 22.1–24.33). Each subdivision contains a number of units that contribute to the development of the plot and message of the book.

Second, the book follows a logical geographic arrangement. An east‐to‐west crossing into Canaan (chs 2–5) is followed by military campaigns directed at the center (chs 6–8), south (chs 9–10), and north (ch 11), concluded by a summary list (ch 12). The division of the land first covers the Transjordanian tribes (ch 13), then the south and central tribes (chs 14–17), then the northern and peripheral tribes (chs 18–19), and finally entities of marginal status (chs 20–21). At times, however, the story backtracks or repeats previously narrated details in a type of flashback. This is especially noticeable in chs 3–4 (the crossing of the Jordan) and ch 10 (the conquest of the south).

Third, typology, representing one character or event as an echo or foreshadowing of another, is utilized to portray Joshua as parallel to Moses. For example, Moses leads the Israelites out of Egypt, Joshua leads the Israelites into Canaan; Moses leads Israel in a miraculous crossing of the Red Sea (Sea of Reeds), Joshua leads Israel in a miraculous crossing of the Jordan River; Moses sends out scouts, Joshua sends out scouts; Moses allots land to the tribes east of the Jordan, Joshua allots land to the tribes west of the Jordan. This particular typology depicts Joshua as the legitimate successor of Moses.

Fourth, the law or teaching (Heb torah) of Moses plays a normative role in strategic parts of the book, and Israel’s obedience or disobedience to the law determines success or failure. This law, especially prominent in chs 1 and 23, is further specified as “the law of Moses” and refers to some form of the law or teaching attributed to Moses extant at the time that the book of Joshua was written, especially as found in Deuteronomy.

Fifth, ritual concerns dictate some of the narration, especially in the earlier chapters. For example, the crossing of the Jordan River (chs 3–4), circumcision and passover (ch 5), the conquest of Jericho (ch 6), and the implementations of the ḥerem (chs 6–8) all reflect ritual concerns that undergird the book’s land claims.

A subset of these ritual concerns is the concept of the ḥerem, which plays a significant role in the book (see 5.13–6.27; 7.6–26; 8.1–29; 10.28–39). This noun is usually translated “devoted thing” (7.1) and the related verb “utterly destroy” (10.28). The term is used primarily in contexts of warfare and destruction where the “ḥerem” stories are connected with the notion of obedience or disobedience to the Lord (cf. Deut 7; 20). Its purpose was to “drive out” or “dispossess” the Canaanites in order to carry out divine judgment on them, to protect the Israelites from Canaanite religious influence, and to fulfill the promises concerning the land. This kind of warfare is part of the political ideology that Israel shared with other nations in the ancient Near East, in which wars were dedicated to the glorification of the deity and the extension of the deity’s land and reign. In fact, the word ḥerem occurs in other Semitic languages and cultures. While it was considered a ritual category (similar to a concept of interdict or taboo), its use appears to have been linked to the administration of the distribution of war spoils. Understanding the ḥerem has posed a significant problem throughout the history of interpretation.

Finally, the book utilizes a number of different land ideologies. Some of these may be anchored in historical geography, others are purely idealistic, and some are a mixture of the two. In the book’s final form, these produce an abstract, idealized concept of the land, create tensions, and set the stage for irony. The dominant land ideology is the territory of the twelve tribes (both west and east of the Jordan) who completely fill up the land (chs 15–19; cf. Deut 4.45–49). In this view, the two‐and‐a‐half Transjordanian tribes (those settled east of the Jordan) are an integral and vital part of “all Israel.” A second, contrasting ideology restricts the true land of inheritance to the territory west of the Jordan (Cisjordan, the land of Canaan) (cf. Deut 12.10). It is this image of the land that lies behind the belief that crossing the Jordan was a step of outstanding significance (chs 3–4). This view also creates ironic tensions in 22.10–34, where the two‐and‐a‐half tribes set up an altar in Transjordan. A third ideology presents the land as claimed but not fully conquered, noting “the land that still remains to be possessed” (13.1–6); and a fourth ideology is an expansionistic, utopian Israel, which claims the distant Euphrates as the northern boundary of Israel’s inheritance (1.4; cf. Gen 15.18; Deut 1.7; 11.24). These last two notions instill the book with the flavor of unredeemed promise. The text develops two understandings of Israel’s unfulfilled expectations. On the one hand, the incomplete conquest is judged to be the result of Israel’s disobedience or military inability (15.63; 16.10; 17.12–13; 19.47); this serves as the basis for future threats to Israel’s well‐being (7.12; 23.12–13). On the other hand, the last two land ideologies function as optimistic indications of greater land blessings to Israel in the future (13.6b; 17.18; 23.5).

Thus the book of Joshua plays an important role not only in the story of the early history of Israel in the land but also in the development of the theology of the Hebrew Bible. It serves as the prologue for the remainder of the Deuteronomistic Historians’ account, which focuses on Israel’s life in the land.

K. Lawson Younger, Jr.

¹ After the death of Moses the servant of the Lord, the Lord spoke to Joshua son of Nun, Moses’ assistant, saying, ²“My servant Moses is dead. Now proceed to cross the Jordan, you and all this people, into the land that I am giving to them, to the Israelites. ³Every place that the sole of your foot will tread upon I have given to you, as I promised to Moses. ⁴From the wilderness and the Lebanon as far as the great river, the river Euphrates, all the land of the Hittites, to the Great Sea in the west shall be your territory. ⁵No one shall be able to stand against you all the days of your life. As I was with Moses, so I will be with you; I will not fail you or forsake you. ⁶Be strong and courageous; for you shall put this people in possession of the land that I swore to their ancestors to give them. ⁷Only be strong and very courageous, being careful to act in accordance with all the law that my servant Moses commanded you; do not turn from it to the right hand or to the left, so that you may be successful wherever you go. ⁸This book of the law shall not depart out of your mouth; you shall meditate on it day and night, so that you may be careful to act in accordance with all that is written in it. For then you shall make your way prosperous, and then you shall be successful. ⁹I hereby command you: Be strong and courageous; do not be frightened or dismayed, for the Lord your God is with you wherever you go.”

¹⁰Then Joshua commanded the officers of the people, ¹¹“Pass through the camp, and command the people: ‘Prepare your provisions; for in three days you are to cross over the Jordan, to go in to take possession of the land that the Lord your God gives you to possess.’”

¹²To the Reubenites, the Gadites, and the half‐tribe of Manasseh Joshua said, ¹³“Remember the word that Moses the servant of the Lord commanded you, saying, ‘The Lord your God is providing you a place of rest, and will give you this land.’ ¹⁴Your wives, your little ones, and your livestock shall remain in the land that Moses gave you beyond the Jordan. But all the warriors among you shall cross over armed before your kindred and shall help them, ¹⁵until the Lord gives rest to your kindred as well as to you, and they too take possession of the land that the Lord your God is giving them. Then you shall return to your own land and take possession of it, the land that Moses the servant of the Lord gave you beyond the Jordan to the east.”

¹⁶They answered Joshua: “All that you have commanded us we will do, and wherever you send us we will go. ¹⁷Just as we obeyed Moses in all things, so we will obey you. Only may the Lord your God be with you, as he was with Moses! ¹⁸Whoever rebels against your orders and disobeys your words, whatever you command, shall be put to death. Only be strong and courageous.”

The conquest of Canaan according to the Book of Joshua, chs 3–11

² Then Joshua son of Nun sent two men secretly from Shittim as spies, saying, “Go, view the land, especially Jericho.” So they went, and entered the house of a prostitute whose name was Rahab, and spent the night there. ²The king of Jericho was told, “Some Israelites have come here tonight to search out the land.” ³Then the king of Jericho sent orders to Rahab, “Bring out the men who have come to you, who entered your house, for they have come only to search out the whole land.” ⁴But the woman took the two men and hid them. Then she said, “True, the men came to me, but I did not know where they came from. ⁵And when it was time to close the gate at dark, the men went out. Where the men went I do not know. Pursue them quickly, for you can overtake them.” ⁶She had, however, brought them up to the roof and hidden them with the stalks of flax that she had laid out on the roof. ⁷So the men pursued them on the way to the Jordan as far as the fords. As soon as the pursuers had gone out, the gate was shut.

⁸Before they went to sleep, she came up to them on the roof ⁹and said to the men: “I know that the Lord has given you the land, and that dread of you has fallen on us, and that all the inhabitants of the land melt in fear before you. ¹⁰For we have heard how the Lord dried up the water of the Red Sea^a before you when you came out of Egypt, and what you did to the two kings of the Amorites that were beyond the Jordan, to Sihon and Og, whom you utterly destroyed. ¹¹As soon as we heard it, our hearts melted, and there was no courage left in any of us because of you. The Lord your God is indeed God in heaven above and on earth below. ¹²Now then, since I have dealt kindly with you, swear to me by the Lord that you in turn will deal kindly with my family. Give me a sign of good faith ¹³that you will spare my father and mother, my brothers and sisters, and all who belong to them, and deliver our lives from death.” ¹⁴The men said to her, “Our life for yours! If you do not tell this business of ours, then we will deal kindly and faithfully with you when the Lord gives us the land.”

¹⁵Then she let them down by a rope through the window, for her house was on the outer side of the city wall and she resided within the wall itself. ¹⁶She said to them, “Go toward the hill country, so that the pursuers may not come upon you. Hide yourselves there three days, until the pursuers have returned; then afterward you may go your way.” ¹⁷The men said to her, “We will be released from this oath that you have made us swear to you ¹⁸if we invade the land and you do not tie this crimson cord in the window through which you let us down, and you do not gather into your house your father and mother, your brothers, and all your family. ¹⁹If any of you go out of the doors of your house into the street, they shall be responsible for their own death, and we shall be innocent; but if a hand is laid upon any who are with you in the house, we shall bear the responsibility for their death. ²⁰But if you tell this business of ours, then we shall be released from this oath that you made us swear to you.” ²¹She said, “According to your words, so be it.” She sent them away and they departed. Then she tied the crimson cord in the window.

²²They departed and went into the hill country and stayed there three days, until the pursuers returned. The pursuers had searched all along the way and found nothing. ²³Then the two men came down again from the hill country. They crossed over, came to Joshua son of Nun, and told him all that had happened to them. ²⁴They said to Joshua, “Truly the Lord has given all the land into our hands; moreover all the inhabitants of the land melt in fear before us.”

³ Early in the morning Joshua rose and set out from Shittim with all the Israelites, and they came to the Jordan. They camped there before crossing over. ²At the end of three days the officers went through the camp ³and commanded the people, “When you see the ark of the covenant of the Lord your God being carried by the levitical priests, then you shall set out from your place. Follow it, ⁴so that you may know the way you should go, for you have not passed this way before. Yet there shall be a space between you and it, a distance of about two thousand cubits; do not come any nearer to it.” ⁵Then Joshua said to the people, “Sanctify yourselves; for tomorrow the Lord will do wonders among you.” ⁶To the priests Joshua said, “Take up the ark of the covenant, and pass on in front of the people.” So they took up the ark of the covenant and went in front of the people.

⁷The Lord said to Joshua, “This day I will begin to exalt you in the sight of all Israel, so that they may know that I will be with you as I was with Moses. ⁸You are the one who shall command the priests who bear the ark of the covenant, ‘When you come to the edge of the waters of the Jordan, you shall stand still in the Jordan.’” ⁹Joshua then said to the Israelites, “Draw near and hear the words of the Lord your God.” ¹⁰Joshua said, “By this you shall know that among you is the living God who without fail will drive out from before you the Canaanites, Hittites, Hivites, Perizzites, Girgashites, Amorites, and Jebusites: ¹¹the ark of the covenant of the Lord of all the earth is going to pass before you into the Jordan. ¹²So now select twelve men from the tribes of Israel, one from each tribe. ¹³When the soles of the feet of the priests who bear the ark of the Lord, the Lord of all the earth, rest in the waters of the Jordan, the waters of the Jordan flowing from above shall be cut off; they shall stand in a single heap.”

¹⁴When the people set out from their tents to cross over the Jordan, the priests bearing the ark of the covenant were in front of the people. ¹⁵Now the Jordan overflows all its banks throughout the time of harvest. So when those who bore the ark had come to the Jordan, and the feet of the priests bearing the ark were dipped in the edge of the water, ¹⁶the waters flowing from above stood still, rising up in a single heap far off at Adam, the city that is beside Zarethan, while those flowing toward the sea of the Arabah, the Dead Sea,^a were wholly cut off. Then the people crossed over opposite Jericho. ¹⁷While all Israel were crossing over on dry ground, the priests who bore the ark of the covenant of the Lord stood on dry ground in the middle of the Jordan, until the entire nation finished crossing over the Jordan.

⁴ When the entire nation had finished crossing over the Jordan, the Lord said to Joshua: ²“Select twelve men from the people, one from each tribe, ³and command them, ‘Take twelve stones from here out of the middle of the Jordan, from the place where the priests’ feet stood, carry them over with you, and lay them down in the place where you camp tonight.’” ⁴Then Joshua summoned the twelve men from the Israelites, whom he had appointed, one from each tribe. ⁵Joshua said to them, “Pass on before the ark of the Lord your God into the middle of the Jordan, and each of you take up a stone on his shoulder, one for each of the tribes of the Israelites, ⁶so that this may be a sign among you. When your children ask in time to come, ‘What do those stones mean to you?’ ⁷then you shall tell them that the waters of the Jordan were cut off in front of the ark of the covenant of the Lord. When it crossed over the Jordan, the waters of the Jordan were cut off. So these stones shall be to the Israelites a memorial forever.”

⁸The Israelites did as Joshua commanded. They took up twelve stones out of the middle of the Jordan, according to the number of the tribes of the Israelites, as the Lord told Joshua, carried them over with them to the place where they camped, and laid them down there. ⁹(Joshua set up twelve stones in the middle of the Jordan, in the place where the feet of the priests bearing the ark of the covenant had stood; and they are there to this day.)

¹⁰The priests who bore the ark remained standing in the middle of the Jordan, until everything was finished that the Lord commanded Joshua to tell the people, according to all that Moses had commanded Joshua. The people crossed over in haste. ¹¹As soon as all the people had finished crossing over, the ark of the Lord, and the priests, crossed over in front of the people. ¹²The Reubenites, the Gadites, and the half‐tribe of Manasseh crossed over armed before the Israelites, as Moses had ordered them. ¹³About forty thousand armed for war crossed over before the Lord to the plains of Jericho for battle.

¹⁴On that day the Lord exalted Joshua in the sight of all Israel; and they stood in awe of him, as they had stood in awe of Moses, all the days of his life.

¹⁵The Lord said to Joshua, ¹⁶“Command the priests who bear the ark of the covenant,^a to come up out of the Jordan.” ¹⁷Joshua therefore commanded the priests, “Come up out of the Jordan.” ¹⁸When the priests bearing the ark of the covenant of the Lord came up from the middle of the Jordan, and the soles of the priests’ feet touched dry ground, the waters of the Jordan returned to their place and overflowed all its banks, as before.

¹⁹The people came up out of the Jordan on the tenth day of the first month, and they camped in Gilgal on the east border of Jericho. ²⁰Those twelve stones, which they had taken out of the Jordan, Joshua set up in Gilgal, ²¹saying to the Israelites, “When your children ask their parents in time to come, ‘What do these stones mean?’ ²²then you shall let your children know, ‘Israel crossed over the Jordan here on dry ground.’ ²³For the Lord your God dried up the waters of the Jordan for you until you crossed over, as the Lord your God did to the Red Sea,^b which he dried up for us until we crossed over, ²⁴so that all the peoples of the earth may know that the hand of the Lord is mighty, and so that you may fear the Lord your God forever.”

⁵ When all the kings of the Amorites beyond the Jordan to the west, and all the kings of the Canaanites by the sea, heard that the Lord had dried up the waters of the Jordan for the Israelites until they had crossed over, their hearts melted, and there was no longer any spirit in them, because of the Israelites.

²At that time the Lord said to Joshua, “Make flint knives and circumcise the Israelites a second time.” ³So Joshua made flint knives, and circumcised the Israelites at Gibeath‐haaraloth.^{c 4}This is the reason why Joshua circumcised them: all the males of the people who came out of Egypt, all the warriors, had died during the journey through the wilderness after they had come out of Egypt. ⁵Although all the people who came out had been circumcised, yet all the people born on the journey through the wilderness after they had come out of Egypt had not been circumcised. ⁶For the Israelites traveled forty years in the wilderness, until all the nation, the warriors who came out of Egypt, perished, not having listened to the voice of the Lord. To them the Lord swore that he would not let them see the land that he had sworn to their ancestors to give us, a land flowing with milk and honey. ⁷So it was their children, whom he raised up in their place, that Joshua circumcised; for they were uncircumcised, because they had not been circumcised on the way.

⁸When the circumcising of all the nation was done, they remained in their places in the camp until they were healed. ⁹The Lord said to Joshua, “Today I have rolled away from you the disgrace of Egypt.” And so that place is called Gilgal^a to this day.

¹⁰While the Israelites were camped in Gilgal they kept the passover in the evening on the fourteenth day of the month in the plains of Jericho. ¹¹On the day after the passover, on that very day, they ate the produce of the land, unleavened cakes and parched grain. ¹²The manna ceased on the day they ate the produce of the land, and the Israelites no longer had manna; they ate the crops of the land of Canaan that year.

¹³Once when Joshua was by Jericho, he looked up and saw a man standing before him with a drawn sword in his hand. Joshua went to him and said to him, “Are you one of us, or one of our adversaries?” ¹⁴He replied, “Neither; but as commander of the army of the Lord I have now come.” And Joshua fell on his face to the earth and worshiped, and he said to him, “What do you command your servant, my lord?” ¹⁵The commander of the army of the Lord said to Joshua, “Remove the sandals from your feet, for the place where you stand is holy.” And Joshua did so.

⁶ Now Jericho was shut up inside and out because of the Israelites; no one came out and no one went in. ²The Lord said to Joshua, “See, I have handed Jericho over to you, along with its king and soldiers. ³You shall march around the city, all the warriors circling the city once. Thus you shall do for six days, ⁴with seven priests bearing seven trumpets of rams’ horns before the ark. On the seventh day you shall march around the city seven times, the priests blowing the trumpets. ⁵When they make a long blast with the ram’s horn, as soon as you hear the sound of the trumpet, then all the people shall shout with a great shout; and the wall of the city will fall down flat, and all the people shall charge straight ahead.” ⁶So Joshua son of Nun summoned the priests and said to them, “Take up the ark of the covenant, and have seven priests carry seven trumpets of rams’ horns in front of the ark of the Lord.” ⁷To the people he said, “Go forward and march around the city; have the armed men pass on before the ark of the Lord.”

⁸As Joshua had commanded the people, the seven priests carrying the seven trumpets of rams’ horns before the Lord went forward, blowing the trumpets, with the ark of the covenant of the Lord following them. ⁹And the armed men went before the priests who blew the trumpets; the rear guard came after the ark, while the trumpets blew continually. ¹⁰To the people Joshua gave this command: “You shall not shout or let your voice be heard, nor shall you utter a word, until the day I tell you to shout. Then you shall shout.” ¹¹So the ark of the Lord went around the city, circling it once; and they came into the camp, and spent the night in the camp.

¹²Then Joshua rose early in the morning, and the priests took up the ark of the Lord. ¹³The seven priests carrying the seven trumpets of rams’ horns before the ark of the Lord passed on, blowing the trumpets continually. The armed men went before them, and the rear guard came after the ark of the Lord, while the trumpets blew continually. ¹⁴On the second day they marched around the city once and then returned to the camp. They did this for six days.

¹⁵On the seventh day they rose early, at dawn, and marched around the city in the same manner seven times. It was only on that day that they marched around the city seven times. ¹⁶And at the seventh time, when the priests had blown the trumpets, Joshua said to the people, “Shout! For the Lord has given you the city. ¹⁷The city and all that is in it shall be devoted to the Lord for destruction. Only Rahab the prostitute and all who are with her in her house shall live because she hid the messengers we sent. ¹⁸As for you, keep away from the things devoted to destruction, so as not to covet^a and take any of the devoted things and make the camp of Israel an object for destruction, bringing trouble upon it. ¹⁹But all silver and gold, and vessels of bronze and iron, are sacred to the Lord; they shall go into the treasury of the Lord.” ²⁰So the people shouted, and the trumpets were blown. As soon as the people heard the sound of the trumpets, they raised a great shout, and the wall fell down flat; so the people charged straight ahead into the city and captured it. ²¹Then they devoted to destruction by the edge of the sword all in the city, both men and women, young and old, oxen, sheep, and donkeys.

²²Joshua said to the two men who had spied out the land, “Go into the prostitute’s house, and bring the woman out of it and all who belong to her, as you swore to her.” ²³So the young men who had been spies went in and brought Rahab out, along with her father, her mother, her brothers, and all who belonged to her—they brought all her kindred out—and set them outside the camp of Israel. ²⁴They burned down the city, and everything in it; only the silver and gold, and the vessels of bronze and iron, they put into the treasury of the house of the Lord. ²⁵But Rahab the prostitute, with her family and all who belonged to her, Joshua spared. Her family^b has lived in Israel ever since. For she hid the messengers whom Joshua sent to spy out Jericho.

²⁶Joshua then pronounced this oath, saying,

“Cursed before the Lord be anyone who tries

 to build this city—this Jericho!

At the cost of his firstborn he shall lay its foundation,

 and at the cost of his youngest he shall set up its gates!”

²⁷So the Lord was with Joshua; and his fame was in all the land.

⁷ But the Israelites broke faith in regard to the devoted things: Achan son of Carmi son of Zabdi son of Zerah, of the tribe of Judah, took some of the devoted things; and the anger of the Lord burned against the Israelites.

²Joshua sent men from Jericho to Ai, which is near Beth‐aven, east of Bethel, and said to them, “Go up and spy out the land.” And the men went up and spied out Ai. ³Then they returned to Joshua and said to him, “Not all the people need go up; about two or three thousand men should go up and attack Ai. Since they are so few, do not make the whole people toil up there.” ⁴So about three thousand of the people went up there; and they fled before the men of Ai. ⁵The men of Ai killed about thirty‐six of them, chasing them from outside the gate as far as Shebarim and killing them on the slope. The hearts of the people melted and turned to water.

⁶Then Joshua tore his clothes, and fell to the ground on his face before the ark of the Lord until the evening, he and the elders of Israel; and they put dust on their heads. ⁷Joshua said, “Ah, Lord God! Why have you brought this people across the Jordan at all, to hand us over to the Amorites so as to destroy us? Would that we had been content to settle beyond the Jordan! ⁸O Lord, what can I say, now that Israel has turned their backs to their enemies! ⁹The Canaanites and all the inhabitants of the land will hear of it, and surround us, and cut off our name from the earth. Then what will you do for your great name?”

¹⁰The Lord said to Joshua, “Stand up! Why have you fallen upon your face? ¹¹Israel has sinned; they have transgressed my covenant that I imposed on them. They have taken some of the devoted things; they have stolen, they have acted deceitfully, and they have put them among their own belongings. ¹²Therefore the Israelites are unable to stand before their enemies; they turn their backs to their enemies, because they have become a thing devoted for destruction themselves. I will be with you no more, unless you destroy the devoted things from among you. ¹³Proceed to sanctify the people, and say, ‘Sanctify yourselves for tomorrow; for thus says the Lord, the God of Israel, “There are devoted things among you, O Israel; you will be unable to stand before your enemies until you take away the devoted things from among you.” ¹⁴In the morning therefore you shall come forward tribe by tribe. The tribe that the Lord takes shall come near by clans, the clan that the Lord takes shall come near by households, and the household that the Lord takes shall come near one by one. ¹⁵And the one who is taken as having the devoted things shall be burned with fire, together with all that he has, for having transgressed the covenant of the Lord, and for having done an outrageous thing in Israel.’”

¹⁶So Joshua rose early in the morning, and brought Israel near tribe by tribe, and the tribe of Judah was taken. ¹⁷He brought near the clans of Judah, and the clan of the Zerahites was taken; and he brought near the clan of the Zerahites, family by family,^a and Zabdi was taken. ¹⁸And he brought near his household one by one, and Achan son of Carmi son of Zabdi son of Zerah, of the tribe of Judah, was taken. ¹⁹Then Joshua said to Achan, “My son, give glory to the Lord God of Israel and make confession to him. Tell me now what you have done; do not hide it from me.” ²⁰And Achan answered Joshua, “It is true; I am the one who sinned against the Lord God of Israel. This is what I did: ²¹when I saw among the spoil a beautiful mantle from Shinar, and two hundred shekels of silver, and a bar of gold weighing fifty shekels, then I coveted them and took them. They now lie hidden in the ground inside my tent, with the silver underneath.”

²²So Joshua sent messengers, and they ran to the tent; and there it was, hidden in his tent with the silver underneath. ²³They took them out of the tent and brought them to Joshua and all the Israelites; and they spread them out before the Lord. ²⁴Then Joshua and all Israel with him took Achan son of Zerah, with the silver, the mantle, and the bar of gold, with his sons and daughters, with his oxen, donkeys, and sheep, and his tent and all that he had; and they brought them up to the Valley of Achor. ²⁵Joshua said, “Why did you bring trouble on us? The Lord is bringing trouble on you today.” And all Israel stoned him to death; they burned them with fire, cast stones on them, ²⁶and raised over him a great heap of stones that remains to this day. Then the Lord turned from his burning anger. Therefore that place to this day is called the Valley of Achor.^b

⁸ Then the Lord said to Joshua, “Do not fear or be dismayed; take all the fighting men with you, and go up now to Ai. See, I have handed over to you the king of Ai with his people, his city, and his land. ²You shall do to Ai and its king as you did to Jericho and its king; only its spoil and its livestock you may take as booty for yourselves. Set an ambush against the city, behind it.”

³So Joshua and all the fighting men set out to go up against Ai. Joshua chose thirty thousand warriors and sent them out by night ⁴with the command, “You shall lie in ambush against the city, behind it; do not go very far from the city, but all of you stay alert. ⁵I and all the people who are with me will approach the city. When they come out against us, as before, we shall flee from them. ⁶They will come out after us until we have drawn them away from the city; for they will say, ‘They are fleeing from us, as before.’ While we flee from them, ⁷you shall rise up from the ambush and seize the city; for the Lord your God will give it into your hand. ⁸And when you have taken the city, you shall set the city on fire, doing as the Lord has ordered; see, I have commanded you.” ⁹So Joshua sent them out; and they went to the place of ambush, and lay between Bethel and Ai, to the west of Ai; but Joshua spent that night in the camp.^a

¹⁰In the morning Joshua rose early and mustered the people, and went up, with the elders of Israel, before the people to Ai. ¹¹All the fighting men who were with him went up, and drew near before the city, and camped on the north side of Ai, with a ravine between them and Ai. ¹²Taking about five thousand men, he set them in ambush between Bethel and Ai, to the west of the city. ¹³So they stationed the forces, the main encampment that was north of the city and its rear guard west of the city. But Joshua spent that night in the valley. ¹⁴When the king of Ai saw this, he and all his people, the inhabitants of the city, hurried out early in the morning to the meeting place facing the Arabah to meet Israel in battle; but he did not know that there was an ambush against him behind the city. ¹⁵And Joshua and all Israel made a pretense of being beaten before them, and fled in the direction of the wilderness. ¹⁶So all the people who were in the city were called together to pursue them, and as they pursued Joshua they were drawn away from the city. ¹⁷There was not a man left in Ai or Bethel who did not go out after Israel; they left the city open, and pursued Israel.

¹⁸Then the Lord said to Joshua, “Stretch out the sword that is in your hand toward Ai; for I will give it into your hand.” And Joshua stretched out the sword that was in his hand toward the city. ¹⁹As soon as he stretched out his hand, the troops in ambush rose quickly out of their place and rushed forward. They entered the city, took it, and at once set the city on fire. ²⁰So when the men of Ai looked back, the smoke of the city was rising to the sky. They had no power to flee this way or that, for the people who fled to the wilderness turned back against the pursuers. ²¹When Joshua and all Israel saw that the ambush had taken the city and that the smoke of the city was rising, then they turned back and struck down the men of Ai. ²²And the others came out from the city against them; so they were surrounded by Israelites, some on one side, and some on the other; and Israel struck them down until no one was left who survived or escaped. ²³But the king of Ai was taken alive and brought to Joshua.

²⁴When Israel had finished slaughtering all the inhabitants of Ai in the open wilderness where they pursued them, and when all of them to the very last had fallen by the edge of the sword, all Israel returned to Ai, and attacked it with the edge of the sword. ²⁵The total of those who fell that day, both men and women, was twelve thousand—all the people of Ai. ²⁶For Joshua did not draw back his hand, with which he stretched out the sword, until he had utterly destroyed all the inhabitants of Ai. ²⁷Only the livestock and the spoil of that city Israel took as their booty, according to the word of the Lord that he had issued to Joshua. ²⁸So Joshua burned Ai, and made it forever a heap of ruins, as it is to this day. ²⁹And he hanged the king of Ai on a tree until evening; and at sunset Joshua commanded, and they took his body down from the tree, threw it down at the entrance of the gate of the city, and raised over it a great heap of stones, which stands there to this day.

³⁰Then Joshua built on Mount Ebal an altar to the Lord, the God of Israel, ³¹just as Moses the servant of the Lord had commanded the Israelites, as it is written in the book of the law of Moses, “an altar of unhewn^a stones, on which no iron tool has been used”; and they offered on it burnt offerings to the Lord, and sacrificed offerings of well‐being. ³²And there, in the presence of the Israelites, Joshua^b wrote on the stones a copy of the law of Moses, which he had written. ³³All Israel, alien as well as citizen, with their elders and officers and their judges, stood on opposite sides of the ark in front of the levitical priests who carried the ark of the covenant of the Lord, half of them in front of Mount Gerizim and half of them in front of Mount Ebal, as Moses the servant of the Lord had commanded at the first, that they should bless the people of Israel. ³⁴And afterward he read all the words of the law, blessings and curses, according to all that is written in the book of the law. ³⁵There was not a word of all that Moses commanded that Joshua did not read before all the assembly of Israel, and the women, and the little ones, and the aliens who resided among them.

⁹ Now when all the kings who were beyond the Jordan in the hill country and in the lowland all along the coast of the Great Sea toward Lebanon—the Hittites, the Amorites, the Canaanites, the Perizzites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites—heard of this, ²they gathered together with one accord to fight Joshua and Israel.

³But when the inhabitants of Gibeon heard what Joshua had done to Jericho and to Ai, ⁴they on their part acted with cunning: they went and prepared provisions,^c and took worn‐out sacks for their donkeys, and wineskins, worn‐out and torn and mended, ⁵with worn‐out, patched sandals on their feet, and worn‐out clothes; and all their provisions were dry and moldy. ⁶They went to Joshua in the camp at Gilgal, and said to him and to the Israelites, “We have come from a far country; so now make a treaty with us.” ⁷But the Israelites said to the Hivites, “Perhaps you live among us; then how can we make a treaty with you?” ⁸They said to Joshua, “We are your servants.” And Joshua said to them, “Who are you? And where do you come from?” ⁹They said to him, “Your servants have come from a very far country, because of the name of the Lord your God; for we have heard a report of him, of all that he did in Egypt, ¹⁰and of all that he did to the two kings of the Amorites who were beyond the Jordan, King Sihon of Heshbon, and King Og of Bashan who lived in Ashtaroth. ¹¹So our elders and all the inhabitants of our country said to us, ‘Take provisions in your hand for the journey; go to meet them, and say to them, “We are your servants; come now, make a treaty with us.”’ ¹²Here is our bread; it was still warm when we took it from our houses as our food for the journey, on the day we set out to come to you, but now, see, it is dry and moldy; ¹³these wineskins were new when we filled them, and see, they are burst; and these garments and sandals of ours are worn out from the very long journey.” ¹⁴So the leaders^a partook of their provisions, and did not ask direction from the Lord. ¹⁵And Joshua made peace with them, guaranteeing their lives by a treaty; and the leaders of the congregation swore an oath to them.

¹⁶But when three days had passed after they had made a treaty with them, they heard that they were their neighbors and were living among them. ¹⁷So the Israelites set out and reached their cities on the third day. Now their cities were Gibeon, Chephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath‐jearim. ¹⁸But the Israelites did not attack them, because the leaders of the congregation had sworn to them by the Lord, the God of Israel. Then all the congregation murmured against the leaders. ¹⁹But all the leaders said to all the congregation, “We have sworn to them by the Lord, the God of Israel, and now we must not touch them. ²⁰This is what we will do to them: We will let them live, so that wrath may not come upon us, because of the oath that we swore to them.” ²¹The leaders said to them, “Let them live.” So they became hewers of wood and drawers of water for all the congregation, as the leaders had decided concerning them.

²²Joshua summoned them, and said to them, “Why did you deceive us, saying, ‘We are very far from you,’ while in fact you are living among us? ²³Now therefore you are cursed, and some of you shall always be slaves, hewers of wood and drawers of water for the house of my God.” ²⁴They answered Joshua, “Because it was told to your servants for a certainty that the Lord your God had commanded his servant Moses to give you all the land, and to destroy all the inhabitants of the land before you; so we were in great fear for our lives because of you, and did this thing. ²⁵And now we are in your hand: do as it seems good and right in your sight to do to us.” ²⁶This is what he did for them: he saved them from the Israelites; and they did not kill them. ²⁷But on that day Joshua made them hewers of wood and drawers of water for the congregation and for the altar of the Lord, to continue to this day, in the place that he should choose.

¹⁰ When King Adoni‐zedek of Jerusalem heard how Joshua had taken Ai, and had utterly destroyed it, doing to Ai and its king as he had done to Jericho and its king, and how the inhabitants of Gibeon had made peace with Israel and were among them, ²he^a became greatly frightened, because Gibeon was a large city, like one of the royal cities, and was larger than Ai, and all its men were warriors. ³So King Adoni‐zedek of Jerusalem sent a message to King Hoham of Hebron, to King Piram of Jarmuth, to King Japhia of Lachish, and to King Debir of Eglon, saying, ⁴“Come up and help me, and let us attack Gibeon; for it has made peace with Joshua and with the Israelites.” ⁵Then the five kings of the Amorites—the king of Jerusalem, the king of Hebron, the king of Jarmuth, the king of Lachish, and the king of Eglon—gathered their forces, and went up with all their armies and camped against Gibeon, and made war against it.

⁶And the Gibeonites sent to Joshua at the camp in Gilgal, saying, “Do not abandon your servants; come up to us quickly, and save us, and help us; for all the kings of the Amorites who live in the hill country are gathered against us.” ⁷So Joshua went up from Gilgal, he and all the fighting force with him, all the mighty warriors. ⁸The Lord said to Joshua, “Do not fear them, for I have handed them over to you; not one of them shall stand before you.” ⁹So Joshua came upon them suddenly, having marched up all night from Gilgal. ¹⁰And the Lord threw them into a panic before Israel, who inflicted a great slaughter on them at Gibeon, chased them by the way of the ascent of Beth‐horon, and struck them down as far as Azekah and Makkedah. ¹¹As they fled before Israel, while they were going down the slope of Bethhoron, the Lord threw down huge stones from heaven on them as far as Azekah, and they died; there were more who died because of the hailstones than the Israelites killed with the sword.

¹²On the day when the Lord gave the Amorites over to the Israelites, Joshua spoke to the Lord; and he said in the sight of Israel,

“Sun, stand still at Gibeon,

 and Moon, in the valley of Aijalon.”

¹³And the sun stood still, and the moon stopped,

 until the nation took vengeance on their enemies.

Is this not written in the Book of Jashar? The sun stopped in midheaven, and did not hurry to set for about a whole day. ¹⁴There has been no day like it before or since, when the Lord heeded a human voice; for the Lord fought for Israel.

¹⁵Then Joshua returned, and all Israel with him, to the camp at Gilgal.

¹⁶Meanwhile, these five kings fled and hid themselves in the cave at Makkedah. ¹⁷And it was told Joshua, “The five kings have been found, hidden in the cave at Makkedah.” ¹⁸Joshua said, “Roll large stones against the mouth of the cave, and set men by it to guard them; ¹⁹but do not stay there yourselves; pursue your enemies, and attack them from the rear. Do not let them enter their towns, for the Lord your God has given them into your hand.” ²⁰When Joshua and the Israelites had finished inflicting a very great slaughter on them, until they were wiped out, and when the survivors had entered into the fortified towns, ²¹all the people returned safe to Joshua in the camp at Makkedah; no one dared to speak^a against any of the Israelites.

²²Then Joshua said, “Open the mouth of the cave, and bring those five kings out to me from the cave.” ²³They did so, and brought the five kings out to him from the cave, the king of Jerusalem, the king of Hebron, the king of Jarmuth, the king of Lachish, and the king of Eglon. ²⁴When they brought the kings out to Joshua, Joshua summoned all the Israelites, and said to the chiefs of the warriors who had gone with him, “Come near, put your feet on the necks of these kings.” Then they came near and put their feet on their necks. ²⁵And Joshua said to them, “Do not be afraid or dismayed; be strong and courageous; for thus the Lord will do to all the enemies against whom you fight.” ²⁶Afterward Joshua struck them down and put them to death, and he hung them on five trees. And they hung on the trees until evening. ²⁷At sunset Joshua commanded, and they took them down from the trees and threw them into the cave where they had hidden themselves; they set large stones against the mouth of the cave, which remain to this very day.

²⁸Joshua took Makkedah on that day, and struck it and its king with the edge of the sword; he utterly destroyed every person in it; he left no one remaining. And he did to the king of Makkedah as he had done to the king of Jericho.

²⁹Then Joshua passed on from Makkedah, and all Israel with him, to Libnah, and fought against Libnah. ³⁰The Lord gave it also and its king into the hand of Israel; and he struck it with the edge of the sword, and every person in it; he left no one remaining in it; and he did to its king as he had done to the king of Jericho.

³¹Next Joshua passed on from Libnah, and all Israel with him, to Lachish, and laid siege to it, and assaulted it. ³²The Lord gave Lachish into the hand of Israel, and he took it on the second day, and struck it with the edge of the sword, and every person in it, as he had done to Libnah.

³³Then King Horam of Gezer came up to help Lachish; and Joshua struck him and his people, leaving him no survivors.

³⁴From Lachish Joshua passed on with all Israel to Eglon; and they laid siege to it, and assaulted it; ³⁵and they took it that day, and struck it with the edge of the sword; and every person in it he utterly destroyed that day, as he had done to Lachish.

³⁶Then Joshua went up with all Israel from Eglon to Hebron; they assaulted it, ³⁷and took it, and struck it with the edge of the sword, and its king and its towns, and every person in it; he left no one remaining, just as he had done to Eglon, and utterly destroyed it with every person in it.

³⁸Then Joshua, with all Israel, turned back to Debir and assaulted it, ³⁹and he took it with its king and all its towns; they struck them with the edge of the sword, and utterly destroyed every person in it; he left no one remaining; just as he had done to Hebron, and, as he had done to Libnah and its king, so he did to Debir and its king.

⁴⁰So Joshua defeated the whole land, the hill country and the Negeb and the lowland and the slopes, and all their kings; he left no one remaining, but utterly destroyed all that breathed, as the Lord God of Israel commanded. ⁴¹And Joshua defeated them from Kadesh‐barnea to Gaza, and all the country of Goshen, as far as Gibeon. ⁴²Joshua took all these kings and their land at one time, because the Lord God of Israel fought for Israel. ⁴³Then Joshua returned, and all Israel with him, to the camp at Gilgal.

¹¹ When King Jabin of Hazor heard of this, he sent to King Jobab of Madon, to the king of Shimron, to the king of Achshaph, ²and to the kings who were in the northern hill country, and in the Arabah south of Chinneroth, and in the lowland, and in Naphothdor on the west, ³to the Canaanites in the east and the west, the Amorites, the Hittites, the Perizzites, and the Jebusites in the hill country, and the Hivites under Hermon in the land of Mizpah. ⁴They came out, with all their troops, a great army, in number like the sand on the seashore, with very many horses and chariots. ⁵All these kings joined their forces, and came and camped together at the waters of Merom, to fight with Israel.

⁶And the Lord said to Joshua, “Do not be afraid of them, for tomorrow at this time I will hand over all of them, slain, to Israel; you shall hamstring their horses, and burn their chariots with fire.” ⁷So Joshua came suddenly upon them with all his fighting force, by the waters of Merom, and fell upon them. ⁸And the Lord handed them over to Israel, who attacked them and chased them as far as Great Sidon and Misrephoth‐maim, and eastward as far as the valley of Mizpeh. They struck them down, until they had left no one remaining. ⁹And Joshua did to them as the Lord commanded him; he hamstrung their horses, and burned their chariots with fire.

¹⁰Joshua turned back at that time, and took Hazor, and struck its king down with the sword. Before that time Hazor was the head of all those kingdoms. ¹¹And they put to the sword all who were in it, utterly destroying them; there was no one left who breathed, and he burned Hazor with fire. ¹²And all the towns of those kings, and all their kings, Joshua took, and struck them with the edge of the sword, utterly destroying them, as Moses the servant of the Lord had commanded. ¹³But Israel burned none of the towns that stood on mounds except Hazor, which Joshua did burn. ¹⁴All the spoil of these towns, and the livestock, the Israelites took for their booty; but all the people they struck down with the edge of the sword, until they had destroyed them, and they did not leave any who breathed. ¹⁵As the Lord had commanded his servant Moses, so Moses commanded Joshua, and so Joshua did; he left nothing undone of all that the Lord had commanded Moses.

¹⁶So Joshua took all that land: the hill country and all the Negeb and all the land of Goshen and the lowland and the Arabah and the hill country of Israel and its lowland, ¹⁷from Mount Halak, which rises toward Seir, as far as Baal‐gad in the valley of Lebanon below Mount Hermon. He took all their kings, struck them down, and put them to death. ¹⁸Joshua made war a long time with all those kings. ¹⁹There was not a town that made peace with the Israelites, except the Hivites, the inhabitants of Gibeon; all were taken in battle. ²⁰For it was the Lord’s doing to harden their hearts so that they would come against Israel in battle, in order that they might be utterly destroyed, and might receive no mercy, but be exterminated, just as the Lord had commanded Moses.

²¹At that time Joshua came and wiped out the Anakim from the hill country, from Hebron, from Debir, from Anab, and from all the hill country of Judah, and from all the hill country of Israel; Joshua utterly destroyed them with their towns. ²²None of the Anakim was left in the land of the Israelites; some remained only in Gaza, in Gath, and in Ashdod. ²³So Joshua took the whole land, according to all that the Lord had spoken to Moses; and Joshua gave it for an inheritance to Israel according to their tribal allotments. And the land had rest from war.

¹² Now these are the kings of the land, whom the Israelites defeated, whose land they occupied beyond the Jordan toward the east, from the Wadi Arnon to Mount Hermon, with all the Arabah eastward: ²King Sihon of the Amorites who lived at Heshbon, and ruled from Aroer, which is on the edge of the Wadi Arnon, and from the middle of the valley as far as the river Jabbok, the boundary of the Ammonites, that is, half of Gilead, ³and the Arabah to the Sea of Chinneroth eastward, and in the direction of Beth‐jeshimoth, to the sea of the Arabah, the Dead Sea,^a southward to the foot of the slopes of Pisgah; ⁴and King Og^a of Bashan, one of the last of the Rephaim, who lived at Ashtaroth and at Edrei ⁵and ruled over Mount Hermon and Salecah and all Bashan to the boundary of the Geshurites and the Maacathites, and over half of Gilead to the boundary of King Sihon of Heshbon. ⁶Moses, the servant of the Lord, and the Israelites defeated them; and Moses the servant of the Lord gave their land for a possession to the Reubenites and the Gadites and the half‐tribe of Manasseh.

⁷The following are the kings of the land whom Joshua and the Israelites defeated on the west side of the Jordan, from Baal‐gad in the valley of Lebanon to Mount Halak, that rises toward Seir (and Joshua gave their land to the tribes of Israel as a possession according to their allotments, ⁸in the hill country, in the lowland, in the Arabah, in the slopes, in the wilderness, and in the Negeb, the land of the Hittites, Amorites, Canaanites, Perizzites, Hivites, and Jebusites):

9the king of Jericho	one
the king of Ai, which is next to Bethel	one
10the king of Jerusalem	one
the king of Hebron	one
11the king of Jarmuth	one
the king of Lachish	one
12the king of Eglon	one
the king of Gezer	one
13the king of Debir	one
the king of Geder	one
14the king of Hormah	one
the king of Arad	one
15the king of Libnah	one
the king of Adullam	one
16the king of Makkedah	one
the king of Bethel	one
17the king of Tappuah	one
the king of Hepher	one
18the king of Aphek	one
the king of Lasharon	one
19the king of Madon	one
the king of Hazor	one
20the king of Shimron‐meron	one
the king of Achshaph	one
21the king of Taanach	one
the king of Megiddo	one
22the king of Kedesh	one
the king of Jokneam in Carmel	one
23the king of Dor in Naphath‐dor	one
the king of Goiim in Galilee,b	one
24the king of Tirzah	one

thirty‐one kings in all.

¹³ Now Joshua was old and advanced in years; and the Lord said to him, “You are old and advanced in years, and very much of the land still remains to be possessed. ²This is the land that still remains: all the regions of the Philistines, and all those of the Geshurites ³(from the Shihor, which is east of Egypt, northward to the boundary of Ekron, it is reckoned as Canaanite; there are five rulers of the Philistines, those of Gaza, Ashdod, Ashkelon, Gath, and Ekron), and those of the Avvim ⁴in the south; all the land of the Canaanites, and Mearah that belongs to the Sidonians, to Aphek, to the boundary of the Amorites, ⁵and the land of the Gebalites, and all Lebanon, toward the east, from Baal‐gad below Mount Hermon to Lebo‐hamath, ⁶all the inhabitants of the hill country from Lebanon to Misrephoth‐maim, even all the Sidonians. I will myself drive them out from before the Israelites; only allot the land to Israel for an inheritance, as I have commanded you. ⁷Now therefore divide this land for an inheritance to the nine tribes and the half‐tribe of Manasseh.”

⁸With the other half‐tribe of Manasseh^a the Reubenites and the Gadites received their inheritance, which Moses gave them, beyond the Jordan eastward, as Moses the servant of the Lord gave them: ⁹from Aroer, which is on the edge of the Wadi Arnon, and the town that is in the middle of the valley, and all the tableland from^b Medeba as far as Dibon; ¹⁰and all the cities of King Sihon of the Amorites, who reigned in Heshbon, as far as the boundary of the Ammonites; ¹¹and Gilead, and the region of the Geshurites and Maacathites, and all Mount Hermon, and all Bashan to Salecah; ¹²all the kingdom of Og in Bashan, who reigned in Ashtaroth and in Edrei (he alone was left of the survivors of the Rephaim); these Moses had defeated and driven out. ¹³Yet the Israelites did not drive out the Geshurites or the Maacathites; but Geshur and Maacath live within Israel to this day.

¹⁴To the tribe of Levi alone Moses gave no inheritance; the offerings by fire to the Lord God of Israel are their inheritance, as he said to them.

¹⁵Moses gave an inheritance to the tribe of the Reubenites according to their clans. ¹⁶Their territory was from Aroer, which is on the edge of the Wadi Arnon, and the town that is in the middle of the valley, and all the tableland by Medeba; ¹⁷with Heshbon, and all its towns that are in the tableland; Dibon, and Bamoth‐baal, and Beth‐baal‐meon, ¹⁸and Jahaz, and Kedemoth, and Mephaath, ¹⁹and Kiriathaim, and Sibmah, and Zereth‐shahar on the hill of the valley, ²⁰and Beth‐peor, and the slopes of Pisgah, and Beth‐jeshimoth, ²¹that is, all the towns of the tableland, and all the kingdom of King Sihon of the Amorites, who reigned in Heshbon, whom Moses defeated with the leaders of Midian, Evi and Rekem and Zur and Hur and Reba, as princes of Sihon, who lived in the land. ²²Along with the rest of those they put to death, the Israelites also put to the sword Balaam son of Beor, who practiced divination. ²³And the border of the Reubenites was the Jordan and its banks. This was the inheritance of the Reubenites according to their families with their towns and villages.

²⁴Moses gave an inheritance also to the tribe of the Gadites, according to their families. ²⁵Their territory was Jazer, and all the towns of Gilead, and half the land of the Ammonites, to Aroer, which is east of Rabbah, ²⁶and from Heshbon to Ramath‐mizpeh and Betonim, and from Mahanaim to the territory of Debir,^{a 27}and in the valley Beth‐haram, Beth‐nimrah, Succoth, and Zaphon, the rest of the kingdom of King Sihon of Heshbon, the Jordan and its banks, as far as the lower end of the Sea of Chinnereth, eastward beyond the Jordan. ²⁸This is the inheritance of the Gadites according to their clans, with their towns and villages.

²⁹Moses gave an inheritance to the halftribe of Manasseh; it was allotted to the halftribe of the Manassites according to their families. ³⁰Their territory extended from Mahanaim, through all Bashan, the whole kingdom of King Og of Bashan, and all the settlements of Jair, which are in Bashan, sixty towns, ³¹and half of Gilead, and Ashtaroth, and Edrei, the towns of the kingdom of Og in Bashan; these were allotted to the people of Machir son of Manasseh according to their clans—for half the Machirites.

³²These are the inheritances that Moses distributed in the plains of Moab, beyond the Jordan east of Jericho. ³³But to the tribe of Levi Moses gave no inheritance; the Lord God of Israel is their inheritance, as he said to them.

¹⁴ These are the inheritances that the Israelites received in the land of Canaan, which the priest Eleazar, and Joshua son of Nun, and the heads of the families of the tribes of the Israelites distributed to them. ²Their inheritance was by lot, as the Lord had commanded Moses for the nine and one‐half tribes. ³For Moses had given an inheritance to the two and onehalf tribes beyond the Jordan; but to the Levites he gave no inheritance among them. ⁴For the people of Joseph were two tribes, Manasseh and Ephraim; and no portion was given to the Levites in the land, but only towns to live in, with their pasture lands for their flocks and herds. ⁵The Israelites did as the Lord commanded Moses; they allotted the land.

⁶Then the people of Judah came to Joshua at Gilgal; and Caleb son of Jephunneh the Kenizzite said to him, “You know what the Lord said to Moses the man of God in Kadesh‐barnea concerning you and me. ⁷I was forty years old when Moses the servant of the Lord sent me from Kadesh‐barnea to spy out the land; and I brought him an honest report. ⁸But my companions who went up with me made the heart of the people melt; yet I wholeheartedly followed the Lord my God. ⁹And Moses swore on that day, saying, ‘Surely the land on which your foot has trodden shall be an inheritance for you and your children forever, because you have wholeheartedly followed the Lord my God.’ ¹⁰And now, as you see, the Lord has kept me alive, as he said, these forty‐five years since the time that the Lord spoke this word to Moses, while Israel was journeying through the wilderness; and here I am today, eighty‐five years old. ¹¹I am still as strong today as I was on the day that Moses sent me; my strength now is as my strength was then, for war, and for going and coming. ¹²So now give me this hill country of which the Lord spoke on that day; for you heard on that day how the Anakim were there, with great fortified cities; it may be that the Lord will be with me, and I shall drive them out, as the Lord said.”

¹³Then Joshua blessed him, and gave Hebron to Caleb son of Jephunneh for an inheritance. ¹⁴So Hebron became the inheritance of Caleb son of Jephunneh the Kenizzite to this day, because he wholeheartedly followed the Lord, the God of Israel. ¹⁵Now the name of Hebron formerly was Kiriath‐arba;^a this Arba was^b the greatest man among the Anakim. And the land had rest from war.

¹⁵ The lot for the tribe of the people of Judah according to their families reached southward to the boundary of Edom, to the wilderness of Zin at the farthest south. ²And their south boundary ran from the end of the Dead Sea,^c from the bay that faces southward; ³it goes out southward of the ascent of Akrabbim, passes along to Zin, and goes up south of Kadesh‐barnea, along by Hezron, up to Addar, makes a turn to Karka, ⁴passes along to Azmon, goes out by the Wadi of Egypt, and comes to its end at the sea. This shall be your south boundary. ⁵And the east boundary is the Dead Sea,^c to the mouth of the Jordan. And the boundary on the north side runs from the bay of the sea at the mouth of the Jordan; ⁶and the boundary goes up to Beth‐hoglah, and passes along north of Beth‐arabah; and the boundary goes up to the Stone of Bohan, Reuben’s son; ⁷and the boundary goes up to Debir from the Valley of Achor, and so northward, turning toward Gilgal, which is opposite the ascent of Adummim, which is on the south side of the valley; and the boundary passes along to the waters of En‐shemesh, and ends at En‐rogel; ⁸then the boundary goes up by the valley of the son of Hinnom at the southern slope of the Jebusites (that is, Jerusalem); and the boundary goes up to the top of the mountain that lies over against the valley of Hinnom, on the west, at the northern end of the valley of Rephaim; ⁹then the boundary extends from the top of the mountain to the spring of the Waters of Nephtoah, and from there to the towns of Mount Ephron; then the boundary bends around to Baalah (that is, Kiriath‐jearim); ¹⁰and the boundary circles west of Baalah to Mount Seir, passes along to the northern slope of Mount Jearim (that is, Chesalon), and goes down to Beth‐shemesh, and passes along by Timnah; ¹¹the boundary goes out to the slope of the hill north of Ekron, then the boundary bends around to Shikkeron, and passes along to Mount Baalah, and goes out to Jabneel; then the boundary comes to an end at the sea. ¹²And the west boundary was the Mediterranean with its coast. This is the boundary surrounding the people of Judah according to their families.

¹³According to the commandment of the Lord to Joshua, he gave to Caleb son of Jephunneh a portion among the people of Judah, Kiriath‐arba,^a that is, Hebron (Arba was the father of Anak). ¹⁴And Caleb drove out from there the three sons of Anak: Sheshai, Ahiman, and Talmai, the descendants of Anak. ¹⁵From there he went up against the inhabitants of Debir; now the name of Debir formerly was Kiriath‐sepher. ¹⁶And Caleb said, “Whoever attacks Kiriath‐sepher and takes it, to him I will give my daughter Achsah as wife.” ¹⁷Othniel son of Kenaz, the brother of Caleb, took it; and he gave him his daughter Achsah as wife. ¹⁸When she came to him, she urged him to ask her father for a field. As she dismounted from her donkey, Caleb said to her, “What do you wish?” ¹⁹She said to him, “Give me a present; since you have set me in the land of the Negeb, give me springs of water as well.” So Caleb gave her the upper springs and the lower springs.

²⁰This is the inheritance of the tribe of the people of Judah according to their families. ²¹The towns belonging to the tribe of the people of Judah in the extreme south, toward the boundary of Edom, were Kabzeel, Eder, Jagur, ²²Kinah, Dimonah, Adadah, ²³Kedesh, Hazor, Ithnan, ²⁴Ziph, Telem, Bealoth, ²⁵Hazor‐hadattah, Kerioth‐hezron (that is, Hazor), ²⁶Amam, Shema, Moladah, ²⁷Hazargaddah, Heshmon, Beth‐pelet, ²⁸Hazar‐shual, Beer‐sheba, Biziothiah, ²⁹Baalah, Iim, Ezem, ³⁰Eltolad, Chesil, Hormah, ³¹Ziklag, Madmannah, Sansannah, ³²Lebaoth, Shilhim, Ain, and Rimmon: in all, twenty‐nine towns, with their villages.

³³And in the lowland, Eshtaol, Zorah, Ashnah, ³⁴Zanoah, En‐gannim, Tappuah, Enam, ³⁵Jarmuth, Adullam, Socoh, Azekah, ³⁶Shaaraim, Adithaim, Gederah, Gederothaim: fourteen towns with their villages.

³⁷Zenan, Hadashah, Migdal‐gad, ³⁸Dilan, Mizpeh, Jokthe‐el, ³⁹Lachish, Bozkath, Eglon, ⁴⁰Cabbon, Lahmam, Chitlish, ⁴¹Gederoth, Beth‐dagon, Naamah, and Makkedah: sixteen towns with their villages.

⁴²Libnah, Ether, Ashan, ⁴³Iphtah, Ashnah, Nezib, ⁴⁴Keilah, Achzib, and Mareshah: nine towns with their villages.

⁴⁵Ekron, with its dependencies and its villages; ⁴⁶from Ekron to the sea, all that were near Ashdod, with their villages.

⁴⁷Ashdod, its towns and its villages; Gaza, its towns and its villages; to the Wadi of Egypt, and the Great Sea with its coast.

⁴⁸And in the hill country, Shamir, Jattir, Socoh, ⁴⁹Dannah, Kiriath‐sannah (that is, Debir), ⁵⁰Anab, Eshtemoh, Anim, ⁵¹Goshen, Holon, and Giloh: eleven towns with their villages.

⁵²Arab, Dumah, Eshan, ⁵³Janim, Bethtappuah, Aphekah, ⁵⁴Humtah, Kiriath‐arba (that is, Hebron), and Zior: nine towns with their villages.

⁵⁵Maon, Carmel, Ziph, Juttah, ⁵⁶Jezreel, Jokdeam, Zanoah, ⁵⁷Kain, Gibeah, and Timnah: ten towns with their villages.

⁵⁸Halhul, Beth‐zur, Gedor, ⁵⁹Maarath, Beth‐anoth, and Eltekon: six towns with their villages.

⁶⁰Kiriath‐baal (that is, Kiriath‐jearim) and Rabbah: two towns with their villages.

⁶¹In the wilderness, Beth‐arabah, Middin, Secacah, ⁶²Nibshan, the City of Salt, and Engedi: six towns with their villages.

⁶³But the people of Judah could not drive out the Jebusites, the inhabitants of Jerusalem; so the Jebusites live with the people of Judah in Jerusalem to this day.

¹⁶ The allotment of the Josephites went from the Jordan by Jericho, east of the waters of Jericho, into the wilderness, going up from Jericho into the hill country to Bethel; ²then going from Bethel to Luz, it passes along to Ataroth, the territory of the Archites; ³then it goes down westward to the territory of the Japhletites, as far as the territory of Lower Beth‐horon, then to Gezer, and it ends at the sea.

⁴The Josephites—Manasseh and Ephraim—received their inheritance.

⁵The territory of the Ephraimites by their families was as follows: the boundary of their inheritance on the east was Ataroth‐addar as far as Upper Beth‐horon, ⁶and the boundary goes from there to the sea; on the north is Michmethath; then on the east the boundary makes a turn toward Taanath‐shiloh, and passes along beyond it on the east to Janoah, ⁷then it goes down from Janoah to Ataroth and to Naarah, and touches Jericho, ending at the Jordan. ⁸From Tappuah the boundary goes westward to the Wadi Kanah, and ends at the sea. Such is the inheritance of the tribe of the Ephraimites by their families, ⁹together with the towns that were set apart for the Ephraimites within the inheritance of the Manassites, all those towns with their villages. ¹⁰They did not, however, drive out the Canaanites who lived in Gezer: so the Canaanites have lived within Ephraim to this day but have been made to do forced labor.

¹⁷ Then allotment was made to the tribe of Manasseh, for he was the firstborn of Joseph. To Machir the firstborn of Manasseh, the father of Gilead, were allotted Gilead and Bashan, because he was a warrior. ²And allotments were made to the rest of the tribe of Manasseh, by their families, Abiezer, Helek, Asriel, Shechem, Hepher, and Shemida; these were the male descendants of Manasseh son of Joseph, by their families.

³Now Zelophehad son of Hepher son of Gilead son of Machir son of Manasseh had no sons, but only daughters; and these are the names of his daughters: Mahlah, Noah, Hoglah, Milcah, and Tirzah. ⁴They came before the priest Eleazar and Joshua son of Nun and the leaders, and said, “The Lord commanded Moses to give us an inheritance along with our male kin.” So according to the commandment of the Lord he gave them an inheritance among the kinsmen of their father. ⁵Thus there fell to Manasseh ten portions, besides the land of Gilead and Bashan, which is on the other side of the Jordan, ⁶because the daughters of Manasseh received an inheritance along with his sons. The land of Gilead was allotted to the rest of the Manassites.

⁷The territory of Manasseh reached from Asher to Michmethath, which is east of Shechem; then the boundary goes along southward to the inhabitants of En‐tappuah. ⁸The land of Tappuah belonged to Manasseh, but the town of Tappuah on the boundary of Manasseh belonged to the Ephraimites. ⁹Then the boundary went down to the Wadi Kanah. The towns here, to the south of the wadi, among the towns of Manasseh, belong to Ephraim. Then the boundary of Manasseh goes along the north side of the wadi and ends at the sea. ¹⁰The land to the south is Ephraim’s and that to the north is Manasseh’s, with the sea forming its boundary; on the north Asher is reached, and on the east Issachar. ¹¹Within Issachar and Asher, Manasseh had Beth‐shean and its villages, Ibleam and its villages, the inhabitants of Dor and its villages, the inhabitants of En‐dor and its villages, the inhabitants of Taanach and its villages, and the inhabitants of Megiddo and its villages (the third is Naphath).^{a 12}Yet the Manassites could not take possession of those towns; but the Canaanites continued to live in that land. ¹³But when the Israelites grew strong, they put the Canaanites to forced labor, but did not utterly drive them out.

¹⁴The tribe of Joseph spoke to Joshua, saying, “Why have you given me but one lot and one portion as an inheritance, since we are a numerous people, whom all along the Lord has blessed?” ¹⁵And Joshua said to them, “If you are a numerous people, go up to the forest, and clear ground there for yourselves in the land of the Perizzites and the Rephaim, since the hill country of Ephraim is too narrow for you.” ¹⁶The tribe of Joseph said, “The hill country is not enough for us; yet all the Canaanites who live in the plain have chariots of iron, both those in Beth‐shean and its villages and those in the Valley of Jezreel.” ¹⁷Then Joshua said to the house of Joseph, to Ephraim and Manasseh, “You are indeed a numerous people, and have great power; you shall not have one lot only, ¹⁸but the hill country shall be yours, for though it is a forest, you shall clear it and possess it to its farthest borders; for you shall drive out the Canaanites, though they have chariots of iron, and though they are strong.”

¹⁸ Then the whole congregation of the Israelites assembled at Shiloh, and set up the tent of meeting there. The land lay subdued before them.

²There remained among the Israelites seven tribes whose inheritance had not yet been apportioned. ³So Joshua said to the Israelites, “How long will you be slack about going in and taking possession of the land that the Lord, the God of your ancestors, has given you? ⁴Provide three men from each tribe, and I will send them out that they may begin to go throughout the land, writing a description of it with a view to their inheritances. Then come back to me. ⁵They shall divide it into seven portions, Judah continuing in its territory on the south, and the house of Joseph in their territory on the north. ⁶You shall describe the land in seven divisions and bring the description here to me; and I will cast lots for you here before the Lord our God. ⁷The Levites have no portion among you, for the priesthood of the Lord is their heritage; and Gad and Reuben and the half‐tribe of Manasseh have received their inheritance beyond the Jordan eastward, which Moses the servant of the Lord gave them.”

⁸So the men started on their way; and Joshua charged those who went to write the description of the land, saying, “Go throughout the land and write a description of it, and come back to me; and I will cast lots for you here before the Lord in Shiloh.” ⁹So the men went and traversed the land and set down in a book a description of it by towns in seven divisions; then they came back to Joshua in the camp at Shiloh, ¹⁰and Joshua cast lots for them in Shiloh before the Lord; and there Joshua apportioned the land to the Israelites, to each a portion.

¹¹The lot of the tribe of Benjamin according to its families came up, and the territory allotted to it fell between the tribe of Judah and the tribe of Joseph. ¹²On the north side their boundary began at the Jordan; then the boundary goes up to the slope of Jericho on the north, then up through the hill country westward; and it ends at the wilderness of Beth‐aven. ¹³From there the boundary passes along southward in the direction of Luz, to the slope of Luz (that is, Bethel), then the boundary goes down to Ataroth‐addar, on the mountain that lies south of Lower Beth‐horon. ¹⁴Then the boundary goes in another direction, turning on the western side southward from the mountain that lies to the south, opposite Beth‐horon, and it ends at Kiriath‐baal (that is, Kiriath‐jearim), a town belonging to the tribe of Judah. This forms the western side. ¹⁵The southern side begins at the outskirts of Kiriath‐jearim; and the boundary goes from there to Ephron,^a to the spring of the Waters of Nephtoah; ¹⁶then the boundary goes down to the border of the mountain that overlooks the valley of the son of Hinnom, which is at the north end of the valley of Rephaim; and it then goes down the valley of Hinnom, south of the slope of the Jebusites, and downward to En‐rogel; ¹⁷then it bends in a northerly direction going on to En‐shemesh, and from there goes to Geliloth, which is opposite the ascent of Adummim; then it goes down to the Stone of Bohan, Reuben’s son; ¹⁸and passing on to the north of the slope of Beth‐arabah^b it goes down to the Arabah; ¹⁹then the boundary passes on to the north of the slope of Beth‐hoglah; and the boundary ends at the northern bay of the Dead Sea,^c at the south end of the Jordan: this is the southern border. ²⁰The Jordan forms its boundary on the eastern side. This is the inheritance of the tribe of Benjamin, according to its families, boundary by boundary all around.

²¹Now the towns of the tribe of Benjamin according to their families were Jericho, Beth‐hoglah, Emek‐keziz, ²²Beth‐arabah, Zemaraim, Bethel, ²³Avvim, Parah, Ophrah, ²⁴Chephar‐ammoni, Ophni, and Geba— twelve towns with their villages: ²⁵Gibeon, Ramah, Beeroth, ²⁶Mizpeh, Chephirah, Mozah, ²⁷Rekem, Irpeel, Taralah, ²⁸Zela, Haeleph, Jebus^d (that is, Jerusalem), Gibeah^e and Kiriath‐jearim^f—fourteen towns with their villages. This is the inheritance of the tribe of Benjamin according to its families.

¹⁹ The second lot came out for Simeon, for the tribe of Simeon, according to its families; its inheritance lay within the inheritance of the tribe of Judah. ²It had for its inheritance Beer‐sheba, Sheba, Moladah, ³Hazar‐shual, Balah, Ezem, ⁴Eltolad, Bethul, Hormah, ⁵Ziklag, Beth‐marcaboth, Hazarsusah, ⁶Beth‐lebaoth, and Sharuhen—thirteen towns with their villages; ⁷Ain, Rimmon, Ether, and Ashan—four towns with their villages; ⁸together with all the villages all around these towns as far as Baalath‐beer, Ramah of the Negeb. This was the inheritance of the tribe of Simeon according to its families. ⁹The inheritance of the tribe of Simeon formed part of the territory of Judah; because the portion of the tribe of Judah was too large for them, the tribe of Simeon obtained an inheritance within their inheritance.

¹⁰The third lot came up for the tribe of Zebulun, according to its families. The boundary of its inheritance reached as far as Sarid; ¹¹then its boundary goes up westward, and on to Maralah, and touches Dabbesheth, then the wadi that is east of Jokneam; ¹²from Sarid it goes in the other direction eastward toward the sunrise to the boundary of Chisloth‐tabor; from there it goes to Daberath, then up to Japhia; ¹³from there it passes along on the east toward the sunrise to Gath‐hepher, to Ethkazin, and going on to Rimmon it bends toward Neah; ¹⁴then on the north the boundary makes a turn to Hannathon, and it ends at the valley of Iphtah‐el; ¹⁵and Kattath, Nahalal, Shimron, Idalah, and Bethlehem— twelve towns with their villages. ¹⁶This is the inheritance of the tribe of Zebulun, according to its families—these towns with their villages.

¹⁷The fourth lot came out for Issachar, for the tribe of Issachar, according to its families. ¹⁸Its territory included Jezreel, Chesulloth, Shunem, ¹⁹Hapharaim, Shion, Anaharath, ²⁰Rabbith, Kishion, Ebez, ²¹Remeth, Engannim, En‐haddah, Beth‐pazzez; ²²the boundary also touches Tabor, Shahazumah, and Beth‐shemesh, and its boundary ends at the Jordan—sixteen towns with their villages. ²³This is the inheritance of the tribe of Issachar, according to its families—the towns with their villages.

²⁴The fifth lot came out for the tribe of Asher according to its families. ²⁵Its boundary included Helkath, Hali, Beten, Achshaph, ²⁶Allammelech, Amad, and Mishal; on the west it touches Carmel and Shihor‐libnath, ²⁷then it turns eastward, goes to Beth‐dagon, and touches Zebulun and the valley of Iphtah‐el northward to Beth‐emek and Neiel; then it continues in the north to Cabul, ²⁸Ebron, Rehob, Hammon, Kanah, as far as Great Sidon; ²⁹then the boundary turns to Ramah, reaching to the fortified city of Tyre; then the boundary turns to Hosah, and it ends at the sea; Mahalab,^a Achzib, ³⁰Ummah, Aphek, and Rehob—twenty‐two towns with their villages. ³¹This is the inheritance of the tribe of Asher according to its families— these towns with their villages.

³²The sixth lot came out for the tribe of Naphtali, for the tribe of Naphtali, according to its families. ³³And its boundary ran from Heleph, from the oak in Zaanannim, and Adami‐nekeb, and Jabneel, as far as Lakkum; and it ended at the Jordan; ³⁴then the boundary turns westward to Aznoth‐tabor, and goes from there to Hukkok, touching Zebulun at the south, and Asher on the west, and Judah on the east at the Jordan. ³⁵The fortified towns are Ziddim, Zer, Hammath, Rakkath, Chinnereth, ³⁶Adamah, Ramah, Hazor, ³⁷Kedesh, Edrei, En‐hazor, ³⁸Iron, Migdal‐el, Horem, Beth‐anath, and Bethshemesh—nineteen towns with their villages. ³⁹This is the inheritance of the tribe of Naphtali according to its families—the towns with their villages.

⁴⁰The seventh lot came out for the tribe of Dan, according to its families. ⁴¹The territory of its inheritance included Zorah, Eshtaol, Ir‐shemesh, ⁴²Shaalabbin, Aijalon, Ithlah, ⁴³Elon, Timnah, Ekron, ⁴⁴Eltekeh, Gibbethon, Baalath, ⁴⁵Jehud, Bene‐berak, Gath‐rimmon, ⁴⁶Me‐jarkon, and Rakkon at the border opposite Joppa. ⁴⁷When the territory of the Danites was lost to them, the Danites went up and fought against Leshem, and after capturing it and putting it to the sword, they took possession of it and settled in it, calling Leshem, Dan, after their ancestor Dan. ⁴⁸This is the inheritance of the tribe of Dan, according to their families—these towns with their villages.

⁴⁹When they had finished distributing the several territories of the land as inheritances, the Israelites gave an inheritance among them to Joshua son of Nun. ⁵⁰By command of the Lord they gave him the town that he asked for, Timnath‐serah in the hill country of Ephraim; he rebuilt the town, and settled in it.

⁵¹These are the inheritances that the priest Eleazar and Joshua son of Nun and the heads of the families of the tribes of the Israelites distributed by lot at Shiloh before the Lord, at the entrance of the tent of meeting. So they finished dividing the land.

²⁰ Then the Lord spoke to Joshua, saying, ²“Say to the Israelites, ‘Appoint the cities of refuge, of which I spoke to you through Moses, ³so that anyone who kills a person without intent or by mistake may flee there; they shall be for you a refuge from the avenger of blood. ⁴The slayer shall flee to one of these cities and shall stand at the entrance of the gate of the city, and explain the case to the elders of that city; then the fugitive shall be taken into the city, and given a place, and shall remain with them. ⁵And if the avenger of blood is in pursuit, they shall not give up the slayer, because the neighbor was killed by mistake, there having been no enmity between them before. ⁶The slayer shall remain in that city until there is a trial before the congregation, until the death of the one who is high priest at the time: then the slayer may return home, to the town in which the deed was done.’”

⁷So they set apart Kedesh in Galilee in the hill country of Naphtali, and Shechem in the hill country of Ephraim, and Kiriath‐arba (that is, Hebron) in the hill country of Judah. ⁸And beyond the Jordan east of Jericho, they appointed Bezer in the wilderness on the tableland, from the tribe of Reuben, and Ramoth in Gilead, from the tribe of Gad, and Golan in Bashan, from the tribe of Manasseh. ⁹These were the cities designated for all the Israelites, and for the aliens residing among them, that anyone who killed a person without intent could flee there, so as not to die by the hand of the avenger of blood, until there was a trial before the congregation.

The Levitical cities (21.1–42). Cities of (ch 20) refuge are highlighted with a star.

²¹ Then the heads of the families of the Levites came to the priest Eleazar and to Joshua son of Nun and to the heads of the families of the tribes of the Israelites; ²they said to them at Shiloh in the land of Canaan, “The Lord commanded through Moses that we be given towns to live in, along with their pasture lands for our livestock.” ³So by command of the Lord the Israelites gave to the Levites the following towns and pasture lands out of their inheritance.

⁴The lot came out for the families of the Kohathites. So those Levites who were descendants of Aaron the priest received by lot thirteen towns from the tribes of Judah, Simeon, and Benjamin.

⁵The rest of the Kohathites received by lot ten towns from the families of the tribe of Ephraim, from the tribe of Dan, and the halftribe of Manasseh.

⁶The Gershonites received by lot thirteen towns from the families of the tribe of Issachar, from the tribe of Asher, from the tribe of Naphtali, and from the half‐tribe of Manasseh in Bashan.

⁷The Merarites according to their families received twelve towns from the tribe of Reuben, the tribe of Gad, and the tribe of Zebulun.

⁸These towns and their pasture lands the Israelites gave by lot to the Levites, as the Lord had commanded through Moses.

⁹Out of the tribe of Judah and the tribe of Simeon they gave the following towns mentioned by name, ¹⁰which went to the descendants of Aaron, one of the families of the Kohathites who belonged to the Levites, since the lot fell to them first. ¹¹They gave them Kiriath‐arba (Arba being the father of Anak), that is Hebron, in the hill country of Judah, along with the pasture lands around it. ¹²But the fields of the town and its villages had been given to Caleb son of Jephunneh as his holding.

¹³To the descendants of Aaron the priest they gave Hebron, the city of refuge for the slayer, with its pasture lands, Libnah with its pasture lands, ¹⁴Jattir with its pasture lands, Eshtemoa with its pasture lands, ¹⁵Holon with its pasture lands, Debir with its pasture lands, ¹⁶Ain with its pasture lands, Juttah with its pasture lands, and Beth‐shemesh with its pasture lands—nine towns out of these two tribes. ¹⁷Out of the tribe of Benjamin: Gibeon with its pasture lands, Geba with its pasture lands, ¹⁸Anathoth with its pasture lands, and Almon with its pasture lands— four towns. ¹⁹The towns of the descendants of Aaron—the priests—were thirteen in all, with their pasture lands.

²⁰As to the rest of the Kohathites belonging to the Kohathite families of the Levites, the towns allotted to them were out of the tribe of Ephraim. ²¹To them were given Shechem, the city of refuge for the slayer, with its pasture lands in the hill country of Ephraim, Gezer with its pasture lands, ²²Kibzaim with its pasture lands, and Bethhoron with its pasture lands—four towns. ²³Out of the tribe of Dan: Elteke with its pasture lands, Gibbethon with its pasture lands, ²⁴Aijalon with its pasture lands, Gathrimmon with its pasture lands—four towns. ²⁵Out of the half‐tribe of Manasseh: Taanach with its pasture lands, and Gath‐rimmon with its pasture lands—two towns. ²⁶The towns of the families of the rest of the Kohathites were ten in all, with their pasture lands.

²⁷To the Gershonites, one of the families of the Levites, were given out of the half‐tribe of Manasseh, Golan in Bashan with its pasture lands, the city of refuge for the slayer, and Beeshterah with its pasture lands—two towns. ²⁸Out of the tribe of Issachar: Kishion with its pasture lands, Daberath with its pasture lands, ²⁹Jarmuth with its pasture lands, En‐gannim with its pasture lands—four towns. ³⁰Out of the tribe of Asher: Mishal with its pasture lands, Abdon with its pasture lands, ³¹Helkath with its pasture lands, and Rehob with its pasture lands—four towns. ³²Out of the tribe of Naphtali: Kedesh in Galilee with its pasture lands, the city of refuge for the slayer, Hammoth‐dor with its pasture lands, and Kartan with its pasture lands—three towns. ³³The towns of the several families of the Gershonites were in all thirteen, with their pasture lands.

³⁴To the rest of the Levites—the Merarite families—were given out of the tribe of Zebulun: Jokneam with its pasture lands, Kartah with its pasture lands, ³⁵Dimnah with its pasture lands, Nahalal with its pasture lands—four towns. ³⁶Out of the tribe of Reuben: Bezer with its pasture lands, Jahzah with its pasture lands, ³⁷Kedemoth with its pasture lands, and Mephaath with its pasture lands—four towns. ³⁸Out of the tribe of Gad: Ramoth in Gilead with its pasture lands, the city of refuge for the slayer, Mahanaim with its pasture lands, ³⁹Heshbon with its pasture lands, Jazer with its pasture lands—four towns in all. ⁴⁰As for the towns of the several Merarite families, that is, the remainder of the families of the Levites, those allotted to them were twelve in all.

⁴¹The towns of the Levites within the holdings of the Israelites were in all fortyeight towns with their pasture lands. ⁴²Each of these towns had its pasture lands around it; so it was with all these towns.

⁴³Thus the Lord gave to Israel all the land that he swore to their ancestors that he would give them; and having taken possession of it, they settled there. ⁴⁴And the Lord gave them rest on every side just as he had sworn to their ancestors; not one of all their enemies had withstood them, for the Lord had given all their enemies into their hands. ⁴⁵Not one of all the good promises that the Lord had made to the house of Israel had failed; all came to pass.

²² Then Joshua summoned the Reubenites, the Gadites, and the half‐tribe of Manasseh, ²and said to them, “You have observed all that Moses the servant of the Lord commanded you, and have obeyed me in all that I have commanded you; ³you have not forsaken your kindred these many days, down to this day, but have been careful to keep the charge of the Lord your God. ⁴And now the Lord your God has given rest to your kindred, as he promised them; therefore turn and go to your tents in the land where your possession lies, which Moses the servant of the Lord gave you on the other side of the Jordan. ⁵Take good care to observe the commandment and instruction that Moses the servant of the Lord commanded you, to love the Lord your God, to walk in all his ways, to keep his commandments, and to hold fast to him, and to serve him with all your heart and with all your soul.” ⁶So Joshua blessed them and sent them away, and they went to their tents.

⁷Now to the one half of the tribe of Manasseh Moses had given a possession in Bashan; but to the other half Joshua had given a possession beside their fellow Israelites in the land west of the Jordan. And when Joshua sent them away to their tents and blessed them, ⁸he said to them, “Go back to your tents with much wealth, and with very much livestock, with silver, gold, bronze, and iron, and with a great quantity of clothing; divide the spoil of your enemies with your kindred.” ⁹So the Reubenites and the Gadites and the half‐tribe of Manasseh returned home, parting from the Israelites at Shiloh, which is in the land of Canaan, to go to the land of Gilead, their own land of which they had taken possession by command of the Lord through Moses.

¹⁰When they came to the region^a near the Jordan that lies in the land of Canaan, the Reubenites and the Gadites and the half‐tribe of Manasseh built there an altar by the Jordan, an altar of great size. ¹¹The Israelites heard that the Reubenites and the Gadites and the half‐tribe of Manasseh had built an altar at the frontier of the land of Canaan, in the region^b near the Jordan, on the side that belongs to the Israelites. ¹²And when the people of Israel heard of it, the whole assembly of the Israelites gathered at Shiloh, to make war against them.

¹³Then the Israelites sent the priest Phinehas son of Eleazar to the Reubenites and the Gadites and the half‐tribe of Manasseh, in the land of Gilead, ¹⁴and with him ten chiefs, one from each of the tribal families of Israel, every one of them the head of a family among the clans of Israel. ¹⁵They came to the Reubenites, the Gadites, and the half‐tribe of Manasseh, in the land of Gilead, and they said to them, ¹⁶“Thus says the whole congregation of the Lord, ‘What is this treachery that you have committed against the God of Israel in turning away today from following the Lord, by building yourselves an altar today in rebellion against the Lord? ¹⁷Have we not had enough of the sin at Peor from which even yet we have not cleansed ourselves, and for which a plague came upon the congregation of the Lord, ¹⁸that you must turn away today from following the Lord! If you rebel against the Lord today, he will be angry with the whole congregation of Israel tomorrow. ¹⁹But now, if your land is unclean, cross over into the Lord’s land where the Lord’s tabernacle now stands, and take for yourselves a possession among us; only do not rebel against the Lord, or rebel against us^c by building yourselves an altar other than the altar of the Lord our God. ²⁰Did not Achan son of Zerah break faith in the matter of the devoted things, and wrath fell upon all the congregation of Israel? And he did not perish alone for his iniquity!’”

²¹Then the Reubenites, the Gadites, and the half‐tribe of Manasseh said in answer to the heads of the families of Israel, ²²“The Lord, God of gods! The Lord, God of gods! He knows; and let Israel itself know! If it was in rebellion or in breach of faith toward the Lord, do not spare us today ²³for building an altar to turn away from following the Lord; or if we did so to offer burnt offerings or grain offerings or offerings of well‐being on it, may the Lord himself take vengeance. ²⁴No! We did it from fear that in time to come your children might say to our children, ‘What have you to do with the Lord, the God of Israel? ²⁵For the Lord has made the Jordan a boundary between us and you, you Reubenites and Gadites; you have no portion in the Lord.’ So your children might make our children cease to worship the Lord. ²⁶Therefore we said, ‘Let us now build an altar, not for burnt offering, nor for sacrifice, ²⁷but to be a witness between us and you, and between the generations after us, that we do perform the service of the Lord in his presence with our burnt offerings and sacrifices and offerings of well‐being; so that your children may never say to our children in time to come, “You have no portion in the Lord.”’ ²⁸And we thought, If this should be said to us or to our descendants in time to come, we could say, ‘Look at this copy of the altar of the Lord, which our ancestors made, not for burnt offerings, nor for sacrifice, but to be a witness between us and you.’ ²⁹Far be it from us that we should rebel against the Lord, and turn away this day from following the Lord by building an altar for burnt offering, grain offering, or sacrifice, other than the altar of the Lord our God that stands before his tabernacle!”

³⁰When the priest Phinehas and the chiefs of the congregation, the heads of the families of Israel who were with him, heard the words that the Reubenites and the Gadites and the Manassites spoke, they were satisfied. ³¹The priest Phinehas son of Eleazar said to the Reubenites and the Gadites and the Manassites, “Today we know that the Lord is among us, because you have not committed this treachery against the Lord; now you have saved the Israelites from the hand of the Lord.”

³²Then the priest Phinehas son of Eleazar and the chiefs returned from the Reubenites and the Gadites in the land of Gilead to the land of Canaan, to the Israelites, and brought back word to them. ³³The report pleased the Israelites; and the Israelites blessed God and spoke no more of making war against them, to destroy the land where the Reubenites and the Gadites were settled. ³⁴The Reubenites and the Gadites called the altar Witness;^a “For,” said they, “it is a witness between us that the Lord is God.”

²³ A long time afterward, when the Lord had given rest to Israel from all their enemies all around, and Joshua was old and well advanced in years, ²Joshua summoned all Israel, their elders and heads, their judges and officers, and said to them, “I am now old and well advanced in years; ³and you have seen all that the Lord your God has done to all these nations for your sake, for it is the Lord your God who has fought for you. ⁴I have allotted to you as an inheritance for your tribes those nations that remain, along with all the nations that I have already cut off, from the Jordan to the Great Sea in the west. ⁵The Lord your God will push them back before you, and drive them out of your sight; and you shall possess their land, as the Lord your God promised you. ⁶Therefore be very steadfast to observe and do all that is written in the book of the law of Moses, turning aside from it neither to the right nor to the left, ⁷so that you may not be mixed with these nations left here among you, or make mention of the names of their gods, or swear by them, or serve them, or bow yourselves down to them, ⁸but hold fast to the Lord your God, as you have done to this day. ⁹For the Lord has driven out before you great and strong nations; and as for you, no one has been able to withstand you to this day. ¹⁰One of you puts to flight a thousand, since it is the Lord your God who fights for you, as he promised you. ¹¹Be very careful, therefore, to love the Lord your God. ¹²For if you turn back, and join the survivors of these nations left here among you, and intermarry with them, so that you marry their women and they yours, ¹³know assuredly that the Lord your God will not continue to drive out these nations before you; but they shall be a snare and a trap for you, a scourge on your sides, and thorns in your eyes, until you perish from this good land that the Lord your God has given you.

¹⁴“And now I am about to go the way of all the earth, and you know in your hearts and souls, all of you, that not one thing has failed of all the good things that the Lord your God promised concerning you; all have come to pass for you, not one of them has failed. ¹⁵But just as all the good things that the Lord your God promised concerning you have been fulfilled for you, so the Lord will bring upon you all the bad things, until he has destroyed you from this good land that the Lord your God has given you. ¹⁶If you transgress the covenant of the Lord your God, which he enjoined on you, and go and serve other gods and bow down to them, then the anger of the Lord will be kindled against you, and you shall perish quickly from the good land that he has given to you.”

²⁴ Then Joshua gathered all the tribes of Israel to Shechem, and summoned the elders, the heads, the judges, and the officers of Israel; and they presented themselves before God. ²And Joshua said to all the people, “Thus says the Lord, the God of Israel: Long ago your ancestors—Terah and his sons Abraham and Nahor—lived beyond the Euphrates and served other gods. ³Then I took your father Abraham from beyond the River and led him through all the land of Canaan and made his offspring many. I gave him Isaac; ⁴and to Isaac I gave Jacob and Esau. I gave Esau the hill country of Seir to possess, but Jacob and his children went down to Egypt. ⁵Then I sent Moses and Aaron, and I plagued Egypt with what I did in its midst; and afterwards I brought you out. ⁶When I brought your ancestors out of Egypt, you came to the sea; and the Egyptians pursued your ancestors with chariots and horsemen to the Red Sea.^{a 7}When they cried out to the Lord, he put darkness between you and the Egyptians, and made the sea come upon them and cover them; and your eyes saw what I did to Egypt. Afterwards you lived in the wilderness a long time. ⁸Then I brought you to the land of the Amorites, who lived on the other side of the Jordan; they fought with you, and I handed them over to you, and you took possession of their land, and I destroyed them before you. ⁹Then King Balak son of Zippor of Moab, set out to fight against Israel. He sent and invited Balaam son of Beor to curse you, ¹⁰but I would not listen to Balaam; therefore he blessed you; so I rescued you out of his hand. ¹¹When you went over the Jordan and came to Jericho, the citizens of Jericho fought against you, and also the Amorites, the Perizzites, the Canaanites, the Hittites, the Girgashites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites; and I handed them over to you. ¹²I sent the hornet^b ahead of you, which drove out before you the two kings of the Amorites; it was not by your sword or by your bow. ¹³I gave you a land on which you had not labored, and towns that you had not built, and you live in them; you eat the fruit of vineyards and oliveyards that you did not plant.

¹⁴“Now therefore revere the Lord, and serve him in sincerity and in faithfulness; put away the gods that your ancestors served beyond the River and in Egypt, and serve the Lord. ¹⁵Now if you are unwilling to serve the Lord, choose this day whom you will serve, whether the gods your ancestors served in the region beyond the River or the gods of the Amorites in whose land you are living; but as for me and my household, we will serve the Lord.”

¹⁶Then the people answered, “Far be it from us that we should forsake the Lord to serve other gods; ¹⁷for it is the Lord our God who brought us and our ancestors up from the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery, and who did those great signs in our sight. He protected us along all the way that we went, and among all the peoples through whom we passed; ¹⁸and the Lord drove out before us all the peoples, the Amorites who lived in the land. Therefore we also will serve the Lord, for he is our God.”

¹⁹But Joshua said to the people, “You cannot serve the Lord, for he is a holy God. He is a jealous God; he will not forgive your transgressions or your sins. ²⁰If you forsake the Lord and serve foreign gods, then he will turn and do you harm, and consume you, after having done you good.” ²¹And the people said to Joshua, “No, we will serve the Lord!” ²²Then Joshua said to the people, “You are witnesses against yourselves that you have chosen the Lord, to serve him.” And they said, “We are witnesses.” ²³He said, “Then put away the foreign gods that are among you, and incline your hearts to the Lord, the God of Israel.” ²⁴The people said to Joshua, “The Lord our God we will serve, and him we will obey.” ²⁵So Joshua made a covenant with the people that day, and made statutes and ordinances for them at Shechem. ²⁶Joshua wrote these words in the book of the law of God; and he took a large stone, and set it up there under the oak in the sanctuary of the Lord. ²⁷Joshua said to all the people, “See, this stone shall be a witness against us; for it has heard all the words of the Lord that he spoke to us; therefore it shall be a witness against you, if you deal falsely with your God.” ²⁸So Joshua sent the people away to their inheritances.

²⁹After these things Joshua son of Nun, the servant of the Lord, died, being one hundred ten years old. ³⁰They buried him in his own inheritance at Timnath‐serah, which is in the hill country of Ephraim, north of Mount Gaash.

³¹Israel served the Lord all the days of Joshua, and all the days of the elders who outlived Joshua and had known all the work that the Lord did for Israel.

³²The bones of Joseph, which the Israelites had brought up from Egypt, were buried at Shechem, in the portion of ground that Jacob had bought from the children of Hamor, the father of Shechem, for one hundred pieces of money;^a it became an inheritance of the descendants of Joseph.

³³Eleazar son of Aaron died; and they buried him at Gibeah, the town of his son Phinehas, which had been given him in the hill country of Ephraim.

1.1–12.24: The conquest. 1.1–5.12: Preparation for the conquest. 1.1–18: The commission of Joshua. 1: Moses’s death (Deut 34) provides the setting for the commission. God did not allow Moses to enter the land (Deut 13.37n.; 32.48–52). 2–18: The commission contains four speeches (vv. 2–9; 10–11; 12–15; 16–18). 2–9: The Lord’s speech outlines the means of success for Joshua and the Israelites: obedience to the book of the law (Heb “torah”), likely referring to an early form of Deuteronomy. The Lord’s speech also anticipates the main themes of the book: the crossing of the Jordan (1.1–5.12), the conquest (5.13–12.24), the division of the land (13.1–22.34), and obedience to the law of Moses (23.1–24.33). 2–5: The idealized boundaries of the land, given with the assurance of God’s presence, were the Jordan River to the east, the wilderness or semidesert to the south and east, the Lebanon mountain range to the northwest, the river Euphrates in the far north, and the Great Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, to the west (cf. Deut 11.24–25; Num 34.1–12). 4: All the land of the Hittites is likely a later gloss, probably referring to northern Syria. The Hittite empire was no longer in existence at this time. 5: An explicit recognition that Joshua is the new Moses; cf. Ex 3.12. 6–9: As currently formulated, the text emphasizes that military success comes from the law’s internalization, spoken of in 1.8 in terms of meditation with consequent obedience (cf. Deut 31.7–8; Ps 1.2–3). 11: In three days reflects ritual concerns (cf. Ex 3.18; 19.11). 12–15: Joshua’s speech to the Transjordanian tribes is suffused with vocabulary that typifies Deuteronomy. Since the other tribes had helped Reuben, Gad, and the half‐tribe of Manasseh conquer their land, they were to help the other Israelites acquire their land west of the Jordan. The half‐tribe of Manasseh, according to territorial lists (see 13.29–31; 17) part of Manasseh occupied land east of the Jordan and part west. 13: See Deut 3.12–20. 16–18: The reply of the Transjordanian tribes rounds out the chapter by echoing the Lord’s assurances of 1.1–9 (cf. Deut 9–10).

2.1–24: The story of the scouts and Rahab. Interrupting the narrative (3.12 continues 1.11), ch 2 functions as a type of parenthesis introducing important items that will form the background to the stories of the crossing of the Jordan and the conquest of Jericho. 1: Joshua commissions two unnamed scouts (NRSV spies) to go and investigate the land (cf. Num 13; Deut 1.21–23; Josh 7.2–3). The scouts go to Jericho, west of the Jordan River, but surprisingly enter the house of a prostitute. While the text does not explicitly state that there was a sexual liaison between the scouts and their hostess, it provides an undercurrent of ambiguous sexual innuendo, especially since Shittim, the site of the Israelite camp, was also the infamous place where the men of Israel had sexual relations with the women of Moab (Num 25.1). 2–13: Rahab is at the center of the narrative. She is the only named character, and without her the scouts would have had no success. She protects and delivers the scouts and provides them with the information they seek. In Mt 1.5 Rahab is reckoned among the ancestors of Jesus, and in Heb 11.31 Rahab is counted as one of the heroes of faith. Rahab’s confession in vv. 9–11 anticipates the “hearing and fearing” expressed in 5.1; 6.1; 9.1–3; 10.1–2; 11.1–5. 6: To the roof, the just harvested (see 3.15n.) flax had been laid on the flat roof to dry. 10: Dried up … the Red Sea, language used only here and in 4.23; cf. Ex 14.21–29. Sihon and Og, see Num 21.21–35; Deut 2.26–3.11. Utterly destroyed, the first use of the “ḥerem” terminology (see Introduction). 11: The acknowledgment of the Lord as the God of heaven and earth is relatively unusual in the Hebrew Bible, but here anticipates the Divine Warrior’s mighty actions once at the Jordan (chs 3–4), once at Jericho (ch 6), and twice in the skies over Gibeon (ch 10). 12: Family, lit., “father’s house.” 14–21: Ironically, Rahab, the Canaanite prostitute, shows unconditional loyalty toward the scouts, risking everything; but they show conditional loyalty to her, minimizing their risks. 16: Toward the hill country, to the west. 18: Crimson cord, cf. Ex 12.7–13. 22–24: The report of the scouts to Joshua is based on Rahab’s words. In contrast to the scouts of Num 13, they did not “view the land” as they were told (v. 1). Without Rahab these men would not have returned to give a report on the Canaanite disposition.

3.1–5.1: The crossing of the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan is narrated in five units (3.1–17; 4.1–10; 4.11–14; 4.15–18; 4.19–5.1) that backtrack and overlap so that some events are recounted more than once. The use of anticipatory statements and resumptive repetitions provides a means of linking the units together (e.g., the anticipatory statement in 3.12 is tied to the resumptive repetition in 4.2). In this way a redactor has attempted to meld together different sources.

3.1–17: The initial story of the crossing. This unit notes that the Jordan is in flood (v. 15), after the later winter rains, because otherwise it is a relatively narrow river. The Jordan functions primarily as a ritual and ideological symbol representing the boundary between landlessness and settled peoplehood. It anticipates the importance of all boundaries in the book, particularly those of the allotments (chs 13–21) and the tribal dispute of ch 22. The fact that the procession begins and ends at early Israelite religious centers ([Abel]‐Shittim and Gilgal) reinforces its ritual significance. 2: Resumptive of 1.11. 3: The ark of the covenant was the container for the text of the law; see Deut 31.26. It also symbolized God’s presence among the tribes; it could be carried only by priests. It could be brought into battle, assuring the deity’s presence among the nation (see 1 Sam 4.6–7). 4: The people were to keep their distance because of the presence of God. Two thousand cubits, about 2,900 ft (885 m). 5: Sanctify yourselves reflects the ritual background of the story. The Israelites were to purify themselves in preparation for the divine presence (cf. Ex 19.10–15). 7: See 1.5n. 10: A stereotypical listing of the pre‐Israelite inhabitants of Canaan; it is difficult to identify the individual groups specifically. Hittites, apparently a group in the land of Canaan (see Gen 23; Judg 3.5; contrast 1.4n.). The Jebusites are associated with Jerusalem (see 15.63). If the chronological setting for these events is approximately the thirteenth century bce, the Canaan that the Israelite tribes entered was in a state of economic, social, and political turmoil, due in large measure to the collapse of the Egyptian empire and many Canaanite city‐state structures. 12: Anticipates 4.2. 13: Stand, cf. 10.13, where the moon is commanded to “stand still.” Heap, a rare word used elsewhere only of the splitting of the Red Sea (Ex 15.8; Ps 78.13). 15: Harvest, the spring harvest (March‐April). 16: Adam, 12 mi (18 km) north of Jericho, is probably Tell ed‐Damiyeh. Zarethan is farther north. 17: The continued presence of the priests with the ark in the midst of the dry riverbed anticipates 4.10.

4.1–10: The erecting of the twelve‐stone memorial. This unit is repetitive (e.g., cf. vv. 6 and 21) and preserves different traditions. 9: Another, perhaps later, tradition that locates a memorial of twelve stones in the bed of the Jordan itself; v. 8 narrates the removal of stones from the river bed to the shore, where they are part of the sanctuary of Gilgal (see v. 20). 10: In haste, cf. Ex 12.33–34. 11–14: This unit backtracks and again narrates the crossing, emphasizing the role of the Transjordanian tribes and the exaltation of Joshua. 12–13: A flashback reports that the eastern tribes have done what Moses commanded and Joshua reiterated (1.14; Deut 3.18). 14: Resumptive repetition stresses again the fulfillment of the Lord’s exaltation of Joshua as with Moses. 15–18: This unit backtracks and retells the ark’s crossing and the unstopping of the river. 18: An item‐by‐item reversal of what happened in 3.15–16. In fact, the verse backtracks to the middle of the Jordan before reporting that the priests actually leave the water.

4.19–5.1: The final unit emphasizes the instructional value of the memorial through comparison with the Red Sea crossing and contributes to the typology: Joshua parallels Moses. 19: The focus turns from the priests to the people. The first month was Abib (new buds; March–April), later called Nisan. The preparations for the first passover began on the tenth day of the first month (Ex 12.3). Gilgal, whose precise location is disputed, was an important Israelite shrine. Its name means “circle,” perhaps referring to the stone configuration; several locations have this name in the Bible. 23: The connection of this event to the Exodus from Egypt is made explicit. 24: As with the Exodus, both foreigner and Israelite (v. 22) must learn from this event (Ex 10.1–2). 5.1: Resuming 2.9–11 and anticipating 9.1; 10.1; 11.1.

5.2–12: Final preparatory events at Gilgal. Three connected rituals are recounted: circumcision (vv. 2–9), passover (v. 10), and the first consumption of the produce of the land at Gilgal (vv. 11–12). 2–9: The disobedience of the older generation (those of the first circumcision who came out of Egypt and died in the wilderness) is contrasted to the obedience of the new generation (those participating in this circumcision). Circumcision was required of all males who were to celebrate the passover (Ex 12.48). 2: Circumcision was a fairly common practice among some peoples of the ancient Near East (e.g., Egypt); it became a sign of Israel’s covenant with God (Gen 17.13). A second time, probably a later addition to mitigate the failure (see v. 5) to observe the obligation of Gen 17.9–14. 6: To give us, an unusual authorial inclusion. The formula a land flowing with milk and honey (see Ex 3.8; Deut 6.3; etc.) anticipates the consumption of the land’s produce (vv. 10–12). 9: This is a folk‐etymology of Gilgal, “the circle” (see textual note a; 4.19n.). The precise nature of the disgrace is unclear; it may refer to Deut 9.28, demonstrating that the crossing and the circumcision are God’s graciousness toward Israel despite Israel’s lack of faithfulness in the wilderness. 10: The celebration of the passover reinforces the portrayal of Joshua as parallel to Moses (cf. Ex 12). 11–12: Land claims are usually presented as a matter of conquests (chs 6–12) and geographic lists (chs 13–21), but here they are set forth in terms of ritual events and diet. The change from manna to the produce of the land signifies Israel’s relocation from wilderness to land. Unleavened bread and roasted grain are used in rituals connected to passover and first fruits (Lev 23.9–14).

5.13–12.24: Conquest of the land. The conquest of the land is recounted as three major campaigns: central (5.13–8.35), southern (9.1–10.43), and northern (11.1–15).

5.13–8.35: Central campaign. The central campaign, which is described in the greatest detail, has three sections: 5.13–6.27; 7.1–8.29; and 8.30–35.

5.13–6.27: Jericho: first application of “ḥerem” (see Introduction). Jericho’s capture is important because it is the first implementation of the “ḥerem” by the Israelites in the conquest. The interpretation of the archaeological evidence from Tell es‐Sultan (ancient Jericho) is disputed, but in the thirteenth century bce there was at best a small unfortified village on the site. Like Moses (see Ex 3.1–4.17), Joshua receives a theophany followed by detailed instructions; 6.2–5 thus continues the scene of 5.13–15, with 6.1 being a parenthetical aside. 5.13–15: The appearance of the commander of the army of the Lord is probably a fragment of a fuller tradition; cf. Ex 23.27–28. He is not mentioned in the rest of the book. 14: The commander is not part of a human army, but rather the commander of the heavenly forces (see Deut 33.2; Judg 5.20; Zech 9.14); like most of God’s messengers (angels), he is unnamed. 15: A direct quotation from Ex 3.5, again showing Joshua parallel to Moses.

6.6–27: Jericho is captured by following the Lord’s instructions. Ritual ceremony plays an important symbolic function, overcoming the walls of Jericho, with the symbolic number seven playing an especially significant role: seven priests, seven trumpets, seven days, seven encirclements on the seventh day, and a seventh‐day climactic victory. This is the first implementation of the “ḥerem,” a ritual act. The Canaanite prostitute Rahab and her family are exempted from the “ḥerem” (v. 17; see ch 2). The account of the fall of Jericho is more ritually symbolic than military in its significance; though as a first victory, it prefigures the successes of the campaigns that follow. 18: Bringing trouble upon it anticipates the next story (7.25). 19–24: Israel’s faithfulness in the implementation of the “ḥerem” is emphasized and Achan’s unfaithfulness is anticipated. Jericho represents a paradigm for the entire enterprise of conquest (8.2; 10.1; 24.11). 25: Ever since indicates that the descendants of Rahab (i.e., Canaanites) survived and lived among the Israelites. 26: The fulfillment of this enigmatic poetic curse is recorded in 1 Kings 16.34. 27: The climactic conclusion: The Lord was with Joshua (see 1.5) and his fame was in all the land.

7.1–8.29: Achan and Ai. 7.1–5: First battle of Ai and Achan’s sin. In contrast to the climactic conclusion in which Joshua is exalted (6.27), Achan’s sin is described. Although only one person was unfaithful, all Israel was liable because the state of being devoted (“ḥerem”) is contagious, and the spoil that was improperly obtained would contaminate Israel’s camp and put it into a state of devotion (“ḥerem”). 2: The name Ai (modern et‐Tell) means “the ruin.” The site, 2 mi (3 km) east of Bethel, was uninhabited during the Late Bronze Age, suggesting an etiological component to the story. 3–5: The scouts believe that Israel is too strong to worry about such a small fortress (contrast Num 13–14). Overconfidence is a result of lack of both consultation of and dependence on the Lord. The men of Ai thoroughly repulsed the Israelite contingent (cf. Num 14.42–45).

7.6–26: Second application of “ḥerem”: Achan’s execution. 6–9: Joshua’s prayer of intercession recalls prayers of Moses (e.g., Ex 32.11–13; Num 11.11–15; 14.13–19; Deut 9.26–29). 6: Tore his clothes … dust on their heads, traditional expressions of grief. 7: Amorites, here a generic designation of the inhabitants of the land (see 24.15), elsewhere called Canaanites. 10–15: God’s answer to Joshua is a rebuke. 11–13: There has been a covenant violation: a theft of God’s property, the devoted things (“ḥerem”) from Jericho. Only sanctifying themselves and removing the devoted things can prevent Israel from being a devoted thing, and thus subject to destruction. 14: The Lord takes, by the casting of lots (a device that when thrown yields the proper yes‐or‐no answer through divine assistance). 16–21: The process of selection successfully narrows down the guilty group, finding the guilty party. It also reinforces Achan’s guilt. 20–21: The actual “ḥerem” objects are listed in Achan’s admission: a beautiful mantle from Shinar (Babylon), two hundred shekels of silver (about 5 lbs [2.3 kg]), and a fifty‐shekel bar of gold (about 1.24 lbs [570 gm]). 22–26: The resolution of the problem is found in the “ḥerem” of Achan, his family, and even his tent. 25: This refers to 6.18. Trouble (Heb “˓akar”) is removed from Israel and ritually placed on Achan. 26: Valley of Achor (“˓akor”), a name derived from a wordplay on Achan’s final state of “trouble.” The valley is probably the Buqeiah, just west of the northern end of the Dead Sea; in 15.7 it is on the border between Benjamin and Judah. The outcome for Achan and his family is an ironic reversal of that for Rahab and her family (6.25).

8.1–29: Third application of “ḥerem”: second battle of Ai and Ai’s destruction. 1–2: The Lord gives assurance and instructions, making clear that Achan’s sin has been removed so that God can once again give Israel the land. 3–8: Joshua relates the Lord’s instructions to the Israelites. The repetitions build suspense. 9–29: Ai is captured and put under the “ḥerem.” 9: Bethel, the modern village of Beitin, is 11 mi (17 km) north of Jerusalem and 2 mi (3 km) west of Ai. Later it became one of the principal shrines of the Northern Kingdom (1 Kings 12.28–30; Gen 12.8; 28.11–22). 14–15: Facing the Arabah … in the direction of the wilderness, toward the Rift Valley, to the east. 18–29: Joshua’s stretching out his sword is similar to Moses’s actions in Ex 14.15–21,26–27; 17.9–12, again suggesting the continuity between these two leaders, and Joshua’s legitimacy. The third implementation of the “ḥerem” is the Canaanite city of Ai. Ironically, God allowed the Israelites to take some of the plunder from Ai that was under the “ḥerem” (v. 27). 28: Forever a heap of ruins, lit., “an eternal tell, a devastation,” cf. 11.13n.; Deut 13.16. 29: The hanging of the king of Ai and his stone memorial in the gate of the city are common actions in ancient Near Eastern warfare. This also anticipates the execution of the five kings in 10.26–27 and follows the Deuteronomic injunction (Deut 21.22–23). It also foreshadows 1 Sam 15, where Saul does not put Agag, the Amalekite king, to death, thereby disqualifying himself from leadership.

8.30–35: Covenant renewal as land grant: Shechem. The events narrated in ch 9 are the natural sequel to the story about the fall of Ai (note that 8.29 flows into 9.3). Hence this account of covenant renewal is parenthetical to the main action and is connected by many scholars with 24.1–28. Traveling to Ebal would have required the tribes to make a trip of about 30 mi (50 km) by road from Ai to Ebal and then to retrace their steps to encamp at Gilgal (9.6). This narrative serves to portray Joshua as carrying out the command given to Moses in Deut 27.4–7 (cf. Deut 11.29–30). Joshua, who obeyed, is the foil to Achan, who did not (cf. 6.27 and 7.1). The connections between this section and Deuteronomy are especially strong. 30: Mount Ebal is one of the two mountains (Gerizim being the other) that flank the pass of Shechem in central Canaan. 31: Quoting Deut 27.5. 32: On the stones, not the stones of the altar, but those Moses had commanded to be used; see Deut 27.2–3; cf. Josh 24.26–27. A copy of the law, see Deut 17.18. 34: Blessings and curses, see Deut 27.11–13; 28. 35: Fulfilling the ritual of Deut 31.9–13.

9.1–11.15: The southern and northern campaigns. The conquests of southern and northern Canaan share the same geographic pattern: center to periphery. However, the account of the southern campaign is much more developed than that of the northern campaign, which can be observed in a comparison of the basic components of 9.3–10.43 and 11.1–15. Thus the region that became Judah’s tribal allotment receives the greater emphasis (a pattern also found in chs 13–19 and Judg 1). This suggests a strong Judahite redactional perspective.

9.1–2: Introductory statement. The section recalls the motif of the inhabitants hearing and fearing (2.10 and 5.1; see also 10.1; 11.1), but in this case the reaction is not fear, but aggressive hostility. The exception is Gibeon, narrated first since its peace with Israel sets in motion the subsequent actions.

9.3–10.43: Southern campaign. 9.3–27: Gibeon. Ironically, Israel has just defeated Ai by means of a ruse; now Israel is the victim of a ruse. The Israelites do not turn to God to understand why they have lost; as in the case of the first battle of Ai, the Israelites’ overconfidence in their ability to discern the situation leads to a lack of dependence on the Lord. 3–15: The Gibeonites are apparently Hivites, a people not known outside the Bible. Fearing Israel, they pretend to be from a far country to take advantage of the more lenient treatment afforded to such people (Deut 20.15). 3: Gibeon is modern el‐Jib, about 7 mi (11 km) southwest of Ai (see map on p. 325). 6: Treaty, Heb “berit,” also translated “covenant.” 10: See 2.10n. 14: Although the leaders (lit., “the men”) of Israel are specifically blamed for not consulting the Lord, Joshua is apparently included. None of Israel’s leadership was exempt from blame. 16–27: Discovery of the ruse and reaction. The Israelites discover the ruse of the Gibeonites, who readily admit their deception (vv. 24–25) because they know that Israel has to honor the pact between them (v. 20). The subservience of the Gibeonites is narrated twice in parallel: The leaders of the people save them and conclude their slave status, and so does Joshua (vv. 18–21 and vv. 22–27). 21: Hewers of wood and drawers of water, according to Deut 29.10–13, the covenant was to erase distinctions between such lower‐class occupations and others. This designation thus suggests that the Gibeonites are outside the covenantal community. 24: See Deut 20.16–18. Tensions with the Gibeonites persist into the monarchy (2 Sam 21.1–14). 27: The place that he should choose is Deuteronomy’s term for the central place of worship, later identified as Jerusalem (e.g., Deut 12.5–18).

10.1–43: The defeat of the Amorite alliance. This passage contains two scenes (vv. 1–15; 16–43), both of which end with identical statements (vv. 15,43). Both scenes utilize temporal panels that backtrack and overlap: Each subsequent panel takes a part of the previous panel and further develops it.

10.1–15: Scene one contains three panels (vv. 1–10,11,12–15). 1–10: The initial circumstances of the battle. This panel is composed of two parts: the formation of the Amorite alliance headed by Adoni‐zedek of Jerusalem (vv. 1–5), and the initial open‐field battle between the Israelites and the Amorite alliance with the slaughter and pursuit to Azekah (vv. 6–10). 1–2: The treaty between Gibeon and Israel incited the kings of five Amorite city‐states to attack Gibeon. Jerusalem, an important Bronze Age city‐state, and later the capital of Judah, is the driving force in the alliance. 3: See inset in map on p. 325. 10: The reference to Azekah and Makkedah anticipates the second panel of scene one as well as the first panel of scene two. Azekah is identified with Tell Zakariya; Makkedah is perhaps Khirbet el‐Qom.

10.11: Divine intervention with hailstones. The second panel of scene one backtracks and overlaps the first panel, describing the enemy flight again to Azekah with the further development of the divine intervention with deadly hailstones. Divine interventions are common motifs in ancient war accounts.

10.12–15: Joshua’s request to the Lord and the divine intervention. The third panel of scene one also backtracks and overlaps, describing Joshua’s request to the Lord at the beginning of the battle with the further development of the divine intervention concerning the sun and moon (cf. Heb 3.11; Judg 5.20). The exact meaning of the divine intervention, described only in poetry, is difficult to ascertain. 13: The Book of Jashar, no longer extant, appears to have been a collection of poetry that extolled Israel’s military victories and heroes (see 2 Sam 1.18). 15: Scene one concludes with Joshua and Israel’s return to Gilgal, which is repeated at the chapter’s conclusion (v. 43) and need not be taken literally.

10.16–43: Scene two contains two panels (vv. 16–27; 28–39) and a summary (vv. 40–43). 16–27: The capture and execution of the kings. The first panel backtracks and overlaps the pursuit, developing the capture and execution of the Amorite kings. The mention of Makkedah in v. 16 is resumptive (see v. 10). Ironically, the cave that the kings choose as their hiding place becomes first their prison, then their tomb. 24: Feet on their necks, symbolizing subjugation, as in 1 Kings 5.3; Ps 110.1. 26–27: In the ancient world, corpses of vanquished enemies were displayed for psychological effect; see 8.29n.

10.28–39: The capture and “ḥerem” of the cities. The second panel backtracks to the pursuit and develops the capture and “ḥerem” of the cities in a stereotyped and redundant manner. (A verbal form of “ḥerem” is translated “utterly destroyed” in vv. 28,35,37,39,40). This typical ancient Near Eastern war account uses hyperbole to emphasize the success of Israel and its God. The king of Gezer, at the center of the seven short episodes, emphasizes that city’s importance. While the city is not captured, the defeat of its king and army in open battle crowns the southern campaign. 31–32: Lachish (Tell ed‐Duweir) was one of the more important southern cities. 33: According to 1 Kings 9.16, Gezer becomes an Israelite city only in the time of Solomon. The Ephraimites had failed to capture it (16.10; Judg 1.29). 34–35: Eglon may be identified with Tell Aitun. 36–39: Hebron and Debir (probably Khirbet Rabud) fall to “all” Israel. In 14.6–15 Caleb is credited with victory at Hebron (see 15.13–14), but Judah in general gets credit in Judg 1.10. In 15.15–17 and Judg 1.11–13 Othniel is credited with the capture of Debir. These accounts highlight various different emphases in the book of Joshua regarding credit for the conquest.

10.40–43: Summary of the southern campaign. Overstatement emphasizes the greatness of the Israelite victory. Scene two concludes (like scene one) with Joshua and Israel returning to Gilgal (10.43). 40: Negeb, the semidesert region in the south. 41: Kadesh‐barnea, Num 13.1–14.45n. and map p. 241; see Deut 1.19; 9.23. Goshen, a designation of the region north of the Negeb (see also 11.16); not the region with the same name in the Nile Delta (Gen 45.10; etc.).

11.1–15: Northern campaign. A literary mirror of 10.1–43 both in general structure and vocabulary, though less developed.

11.1–11: Defeat of the Canaanite coalition. A large and powerful Canaanite coalition is organized and headed by Jabin, the king of Hazor. The name Jabin occurs here and in Judg 4 and Ps 83.10. Scholars suggest that our author has modified the story in Judg 4–5. 1: The final occurrence of the “hearing” motif, see 5.1n. The locations of Madon, Shimron, and Achshaph are not certain. 2: The Arabah is the Jordan Valley; Chinneroth, a town on the western side of the Sea of Galilee (Chinnereth). 3–5: This enemy is superior to the Israelite army, both numerically and technologically (they have dreaded horses and chariots). This coalition presents the most significant threat to Israel’s success in conquering the land. Hermon, the high mountain in the extreme north of Israel. Merom is a city in Galilee known from extrabiblical sources; its precise location is not certain. 6: The Lord’s oracle of assurance precedes the victory (cf. 8.1; 10.8). Hamstring their horses means cutting a tendon of a rear leg to make them useless (see 2 Sam 8.4). 10–11: Hazor, the most important northern city, is totally destroyed by burning just like Jericho and Ai (cf. 6.24; 8.8,19). Jericho and Hazor frame the “conquest” of the land of Canaan.

11.12–15: Summary of northern campaign. The Israelite conquest in the north is summarized by noting several times that “all” was conquered by Joshua, the worthy successor to Moses, who fulfilled the requirements of Deut 20.16–17. 13: Mounds, translating the Hebrew word for “tells,” cf. 8.28n.

11.16–23: Summary of total conquest. 16–19: The word all characterizes these verses, emphasizing the totality of the conquest. 18–20: The depiction here conflicts with the earlier accounts, suggesting that a protracted war was necessary. 20: Harden their hearts, this phrase is elsewhere used of Pharaoh in Egypt (Ex 4.21; etc.), and suggests that, for the Lord and for the author, the inhabitants of the land were enemies comparable to the Egyptians. 21: The Anakim, a term for pre‐Israelite inhabitants of Canaan renowned for their size and strength (Deut 9.2). 23: And the land had rest from war, a conclusion formula, moving toward a transition from the conquest to the division of land. This declaration recurs in 14.15, forming a literary link between the defeat of the Anakim by Joshua (ch 11) and their defeat by Caleb (ch 14).

12.1–24: A selective list of defeated cities’ kings. An additional conclusion to the first section of the book. 1–6: Moses’s exploits in Transjordan. This summary draws from Deut 2–3; (see map on p. 253). 2: The story of King Sihon is narrated in Num 21.21–31 and Deut 2.26–37. 4: The defeat of Og is narrated in Num 21.33–35 and Deut 3.1–17. Bashan, northern Transjordan. Rephaim, here, another term for pre‐Israelite inhabitants of Canaan; elsewhere sometimes used for inhabitants of the underworld.

12.7–24: Joshua’s victories west of the Jordan. Previous narratives mention fewer than half of these cities. Vv. 9–13a follow the order of chs 6–10, but after that no clear pattern is evident. This section thus seems to be adapted from a different source than the previous chapters. Moreover, the length of this list shows that previous narratives are selective, highlighting particular stories for ideological and theological purposes. For the location of the places, see map 4 at the end of this volume.

13.1–24.33: The allotment of the land. Having completed his first task, the conquest (1.2–5), Joshua turns his attention to his second task (1.6): “Put this people in possession of the land” (cf. Deut 4.21; 15.4; 19.10). The concern over allotment or inheritance (Heb “naḥalah”) unifies this section (13.6; 14.3,13; 17.4,6,14; 19.49). The section emphasizes that the division follows the divine will, as mediated by Joshua and Eleazar the priest. It utilizes four types of sources: boundary descriptions; town lists integrated into boundary descriptions; town lists; and short narratives that relate incidents of importance within the allotments, providing didactic significance to the division of the land. The cities of refuge and Levitical cities are attached at the end of the section since it is necessary for the tribes to receive their inheritance before they can allocate parts of it to others. For this entire section, see map on p. 351.

13.1–7: Land remaining. The land remaining is defined by those towns and regions inside the borders of Canaan (cf. Num 34.1–12) that are not under Israelite control. This foreshadows other passages in chs 13–21 that contrast with the first half of the book, by documenting Israel’s failure to capture all of the land, or by noting that foreigners live among the Israelites. These contrast with the idealistic reports given in the text (cf. 15.63; 16.10; 17.11–13; 18.2; 19.47). The particular areas designated as outside Israelite possession are the regions of the Philistines (the southwestern coastal area), and all those of the Geshurites (east of the Sea of Galilee) (cf. 13.13), and the land of Phoenicia (northern coastal areas). According to 2 Sam 8.1–2 and 3.3, Philistia and Geshur came under Israelite control or influence only during the period of David).

13.8–33: Transjordanian tribal allotment. Before the allotments west of the Jordan can be described, the Transjordanian allotments that Moses made are recounted: a general description of the extent of the Transjordanian lands (13.8–13), a declaration that the Levites received no inheritance (13.14), a specific description of the Transjordanian territories (13.15–32), and again a declaration that the Levites received no inheritance (13.33). Israel had great difficulties controlling this territory throughout its history, though Deuteronomy considered it part of Israel (see Deut 3.12–17). See map 2 at the end of this volume. 12: Rephaim, see 12.4n. 13: The first of many qualifications about Israelite success in possessing the land. 14: Offerings by fire, as the priestly tribe, the Levites were in charge of worship and shared the offerings; cf. Lev 7.29–36; etc. See also v. 33n. 21: Midian, see Num 31.1–12. 22: Balaam, in contrast to the narrative about him in Num 22–24, here this non‐Israelite prophet is presented in a negative light. The tradition that the Israelites said to have killed him is also found in Num 31.8. 33: A somewhat different formulation from v. 14; cf. Deut 10.9; 18.2; 18.7.

14.1–19.51: Cisjordanian tribal allotment. The story of the allotments to the tribes west of the Jordan is framed by an introduction (14.1–5) and a summary (19.51). The main text is divided into two major sections: the allotments to Judah and Joseph, the two most powerful tribes (14.6–17.18), and allotments to the seven other tribes (18.1–19.51). 14.1–5: Introduction to the process of allotment. Eleazar (the chief priest, son of Aaron), Joshua, and the heads of the tribal families oversaw this allotment, which was performed by lot (see 7.14n.). 4–5: See Num 34.13–15; 35.3. In an artificial way, in order to maintain the conventional number of twelve tribes, the people of Joseph were counted as two tribes, Manasseh and Ephraim, to make up for Levi’s lack of inheritance (see 13.14,33n.).

14.6–17.18: Judah and Joseph allotments. Parallel structures are used to describe the allotments to these tribes: narrative frames, boundary descriptions, and town lists, with vignettes in the center.

14.6–15.63: Judah. The tribe to which King David belonged is first.

14.6–15: Caleb’s conquest. The success of Judah is specifically illustrated in the narrative frame story of Caleb’s conquest of Hebron. Caleb was one of the original twelve scouts sent into the land of Canaan (Num 13.30; 14.24). Caleb and his clan conquer Hebron, the home of the Anakim. The repetition in v. 15 of the statement and the land had rest from war connects this story to 11.21–23. Ironically, it was the fear of these very Anakim that caused Israel’s disobedience and failure at Kadesh‐barnea, according to Num 13.28 and Deut 1.28. 10: According to Deut 2.14, thirty‐eight years elapsed from the events at Kadesh to the entry into the land; the events of the preceding chapters thus took seven years, perhaps an ideal number. 13: Hebron (Tell Rumeideh) is 19 mi (31 km) south of Jerusalem. 14: This prime example of Judahite success is accomplished by a non‐Israelite: Caleb is a Kenizzite (14.6,14) who is, however, ultimately incorporated into Judah’s genealogy (1 Chr 2.9,18). 15: See 15.13; Gen 23.2. In the ancient Near East, tribal groups were socially constructed units, not always based on actual biological lineage.

15.1–12: Judah’s boundary description is given in a counterclockwise arrangement: south (vv. 2–4), east (v. 5), north (vv. 6–11), west (v. 12a; cf. 11.21–22; Judg 1.18–19; Josh 15.63), with a concluding boundary description (v. 12b). See map on p. 241 and map 4 at the end of this volume. 1: Wilderness of Zin, the locale of Kadesh‐barnea, in the southern Negeb (see 10.41n.; Num 20.1; Deut 32.51). 4: Wadi of Egypt, either the Wadi Besor or the Wadi el‐Arish, both south of Gaza. 6: Bohan means “thumb”; Reuben’s son, named only here and in 18.17. No son of Reuben with this name is mentioned elsewhere, and the location of part of the tribe of Reuben west of the Jordan is unusual. 7–8: For the geography of Jerusalem, see map 1 at the end of this volume.

15.13–19: Vignettes about Judah’s heroes (cf. 10.36–39; Judg 1.9–15): male, Caleb and Othniel (15.13–17), and female, Achsah (15.18–19). In the first vignette, Caleb conquers Hebron (see 14.6–15) and attacks the city of Debir. After recording Caleb’s challenge and offer of his daughter in marriage (cf. 1 Sam 17.25), Othniel steps forward as the conquering hero of Debir. In the second, Achsah takes the initiative, urging her husband to ask for a field and then requesting her father to give her springs or pools since land without water is land without life.

15.20–62: A list of Judah’s towns according to districts that is generally considered to have originated in the monarchic period. A similar list is found in 1 Kings 4.7–19.

15.63: A narrative postscript noting Judah’s failure to conquer Jerusalem. This failure contrasts with Caleb’s success in the initial narrative of Judah’s allotment (14.6–15). Judg 1.21 attributes this failure to the Benjaminites. According to 2 Sam 5.6–9, David captures this city. Jebusites, Jebus, the name by which Jerusalem was known before its conquest by David.

16.1–17.18: Joseph (Ephraim and Half‐Manasseh). As the primary power in the Northern Kingdom, Joseph is mentioned next. See map on p. 351. The order here of Ephraim then Manasseh follows Jacob’s blessings in Gen 48.12–22, not their birth order narrated in Gen 41.51–52.

16.1–4: A narrative frame that gives the general outline of the southern borders of the Joseph tribes (i.e., the southern boundary of Ephraim). The people of Joseph receive one allotment (16.1), as if they constitute one tribe, yet they are recognized as two distinct tribal units (Ephraim and Manasseh; 14.4a). In addition, one of the tribes, Manasseh, is further divided: part of the tribe has already received an allotment in Transjordan, while the remainder receives its allotment in Cisjordan.

16.5–10: Ephraim’s boundary description is delineated. The fragmentary description here contrasts with that devoted to Judah (15.1–12). 10: The Ephraimites failed to dispossess the Canaanites, though subjecting them to forced labor; cf. 15.63; Judg 1.29.

17.1–6: Ephraim’s heroes. This somewhat disjointed section corresponds to Judah’s vignettes of heroes. 1–2: The mighty warrior (parallel to Caleb and Othniel in 15.13–17) is Machir, Manasseh’s firstborn (cf. Num 32.39–40), who is given Gilead and Bashan, in Transjordan (see map on p. 351). Yet the allotment for the rest of the tribe of Manasseh west of the Jordan is given in the form of a town list without any connection to the ancestral hero. 3–6: The tribes’ heroic women (corresponding to Achsah in 15.18–19) are the daughters of Zelophehad (see Num 27.1–11; 36.1–12).

17.7–13: Manasseh’s boundary description is given. It includes a list of towns that the tribe had within the tribal allotments of Issachar and Asher (v. 11). As in the case of Ephraim, the Canaanites were not driven out, but were put to forced labor (vv. 12–13; cf. Judg 1.27–28). While the description of Judah’s borders is related with precision and detail, those of Ephraim and Manasseh are fragmentary, take up much less textual space, and present numerous topographical difficulties. The integrity of Judah’s territory is thus contrasted with the broken borders of the Joseph tribes.

17.14–18: Joseph’s portion. This narrative frame describes the demand of the people of Joseph and the double portion that they receive. This story is an ironic counterbalance to the quest for land by Caleb (14.6–15), and perhaps also by Achsah (15.18–19). The Josephites convey trepidation, contentiousness, and failure.

18.1–19.51: Seven other tribal allotments. The narration of the allotments to the remaining seven tribes. See map on p. 351 and map 4 at the end of this volume.

18.1–10: Assembly of Shiloh. General introduction to the allotments. The boundaries of the tribes in the land are asserted to be the result of the Lord’s will and of Israel’s obedience, not human will or historical contingency. 1: Shiloh, an important Israelite sanctuary in the period before the monarchy (Judg 18.31; 1 Sam 4.3–4). It is 19 mi (31 km) north of Jerusalem. 6: Lots, see 7.14n. 7: The Levites, see 13.14n., 33n.

18.11–28: Benjamin. The territory of Benjamin is immediately north of Judah. 12–20: A counterclockwise boundary description is given. 17: Bohan, see 15.6n. 21–28: Benjamin’s town list follows. Two districts of towns (vv. 21–24 and vv. 25–28) are presented in the same format as those for Judah (many scholars assume from the same source). 28: Jerusalem, assigned to Judah in 15.63.

19.1–9: Simeon. The allotment is described only in terms of a town list (cf. 1 Chr 4.28–33). 9: A gloss explaining why these do not follow a boundary description. A conjoining of Judah and Simeon is also found in Judg 1.3.

19.10–16: Zebulun. 10–14: Zebulun’s boundary description is given. 15: A town list integrated into a boundary description follows.

19.17–23: Issachar. 18–21: Issachar’s town list. 22: A boundary fragment with v. 17 providing a formulaic introduction. Issachar’s boundaries correspond to Solomon’s tenth district (1 Kings 4.17). Consequently, there may be some relationship between this unit and the administrative unit in that list. Issachar is missing in the summary in of Judg 1.

19.24–31: Asher. Asher’s allotment is fragmentary, with a boundary description (vv. 26–30) and a town list integrated into a boundary description (vv. 25–26,28,30). The list includes some Phoenician cities such as Tyre (v. 29) that were never under Israelite control, suggesting that idealized elements are found in these lists.

19.32–39: Naphtali. Naphtali’s allotment has a boundary description (vv. 33–34) and a town list (vv. 35–38). Vv. 32 and 39 provide the framework. The allotment is missing a northern border.

19.40–48: Dan. Like Simeon (vv. 1–9), the allotment is given only in the form of a town list (vv. 41–47), with vv. 40 and 48 providing a formulaic framework. Ancient tradition located Dan in the south (cf. Judg 1.34). 47: According to Judges, sometime before the time of the monarchy the Danites migrated to the north (see Judg 18.1–31). Judg 18.27 refers to Leshem as Laish.

19.49–50: Final allotment. The allotments of two former scouts (Num 13.6,8) frame the larger unit: Joshua’s individual allotment concludes the division of the land, just as Caleb’s individual allotment began it (14.6–15). Caleb’s success and vigor in capturing Hebron is contrasted to Joshua, who requests a city in the Ephraimite hill country that he (re)builds for himself. The city’s name, Timnath‐seraḥ (“portion of excess”) (cf. 24.30), is preserved as Timnath‐ḥeres (“portion of the sun”) in Judg 2.9. Joshua appears to prefer the sparsely settled hills to fortified cities.

19.51: Summary of the process of allotment. The verse serves as a closing bracket for the structural segments of both 14.1–19.51 (nine‐and‐one‐half tribes) and 18.1–19.51 (seven tribes).

20.1–21.42: Allotments to persons of marginal status. This section delineates secondary allotments that form a transition to the practical concerns of how life is to be lived in the land. Neither group is bounded by the tribal borders just enumerated in chs 13–19. The establishment of both the cities of refuge and the Levitical cities was based on instructions given by Moses. Both are supplemental land grants.

20.1–9: Cities of refuge. The towns of asylum provided the right of asylum for someone who committed involuntary manslaughter until the case was adjudicated. The passage shows how Joshua fulfilled what God had commanded Moses (Num 35.9–34) and Moses commanded Israel (Deut 19.1–13). The right of asylum helped to limit the social damage of unrestrained blood vengeance or feuding, especially important in a tribal context (see Judg 12.1–5; 19.1–21.25). Three towns were allotted on each side of the Jordan. All six were also Levitical cities (21.1,11,27,32,36,38). 3: The avenger (Heb “goʾel”) of blood was the deceased’s nearest relative (cf. 2 Sam 14.2–17). 4: The gate of the city was where the elders of the city met to adjudicate disputes (cf. Ruth 4.1–12). 6: Probably a later addition, incorporating the priestly perspective of Num 35.25, with trial by the congregation (rather than the elders of v. 4), and implying that the death of the … high priest expiated the victim’s death. 7–10: See map on p. 351.

21.1–42: Levitical cities. Elsewhere the Levites have no inheritance (13.14,33; 18.7; Deut 10.8–9); nevertheless, they are integrated into the unity of Israel. As in the delineation of the tribal boundaries, there is some idealization. The total number of Levitical cities (forty‐eight) as a multiple of twelve is symbolic, but the towns are not equally divided among the tribes. They are allotted to the three clans of the Levites: the Kohathites, Gershonites, and Merarites. 11–12: See 14.13–15n.; 15.13–19n. 13–40: See map on p. 351.

21.43–45: Ironic conclusion. This is an ironic conclusion to the conquest and allotment sections of the book. The overstated claims of unmitigated success (note the use of Heb “kol” [“all” or “every”] six times) in these verses seem incongruent with the statements given throughout 13.1–21.42 that there were failures among the tribes—some quite significant—as each attempted to secure its allotment. Nevertheless, the stress on the Lord’s faithfulness contrasts with the squabbling over the Transjordanian altar in the next section (22.10–34).

22.1–24.33: Epilogue to the conquest and allotment. Three concluding sections are used to foster Israel’s fidelity in the land. These take the form of a warning narrative (22.1–34) and a pair of exhorting addresses (23.1–16; 24.1–28) in which commitments to the covenant are renewed. Originally disparate materials have been selected and arranged to frame the book. In particular, participants and motifs from 1.1–18 recur in this section, providing a frame to the book’s core.

22.1–34: Misunderstanding with the Transjordanian tribes. The ties binding the tribes together were not firm, and conflicts were a continuing problem. The issue here is the place of legitimate worship, a central concern of Deuteronomy. 1–9: The Transjordanian tribes return to their homes on the east bank. 1–5: Joshua’s farewell to the Transjordanian tribes structurally balances the introduction to them in 1.12–18. 5: To love the Lord anticipates 23.11; the language is Deuteronomic (see Deut 6.5; 10.12–13; 30.16; etc.). 7: See Deut 3.13; Josh 17.

22.10–34: The debate over the altar built by the Transjordanian tribes. The central role of Phinehas (see Ex 6.25; Num 25) in dealing with this conflict leads some scholars to conclude that priestly circles edited this story. 12: Holding strictly to the Deuteronomic law that forbade the offering of sacrifice anywhere except in the one central sanctuary (Deut 12.13–14), the other tribes apparently interpret the building of the altar as an act of disloyalty to Israel and to its God, and therefore prepare to make war against them (Deut 13.13–19). The extent to which the tribal settlement east of the Jordan is or is not part of Israel also stands behind this narrative. 17: The sin at Peor, Num 25.3–5. 19: Highly charged theological language suggests the superiority of the Cisjordanian tribes. 20: Achan, see ch 7. 24–25: The motive of the Transjordanian tribes was honorable; they built the altar as a witness to their loyalty to the Lord, not to worship foreign deities. They feared that in the future the Israelites west of the Jordan might discriminate against them—a well‐founded fear in light of this story (see Judg 12.1–5). 26–27: It was not a real sacrificial altar, they claimed, but merely a memorial, a witness (cf. Gen 31.47–48; Josh 24.27).

23.1–24.28: Concluding charges. Joshua’s speech to the leaders (23.1–16) is similar to his charge to the people (24.1–28). Both resemble the testaments of prior Israelite leaders: Jacob (Gen 48–49), Joseph (Gen 50.22–26), and especially Moses (Deut 32–33). Additionally, both have framing links with 1.2–9.

23.1–16: Covenantal charge to the leaders. Joshua’s address to the leaders consists almost entirely of Deuteronomistic reflections. 1–5: God’s mighty acts of conquest. 4: The Great Sea, the Mediterranean. 6–11: An exhortation to remain faithful to the Lord and his covenant so that the remaining land can be conquered. 12–16: Warnings of judgments if Israel is unfaithful to the covenant, worshiping foreign gods. 14: To go the way of all the earth, i.e., to die; see 1 Kings 2.2.

24.1–28: Covenant renewal of the people. Joshua fulfills the commands of Moses in Deut 11; 27; 31. All Israel unites under Joshua’s leadership in the service of the Lord. Joshua’s final meeting with the people takes place at Shechem (cf. 8.30–35). 1: Shechem (Tell Balata) became an important Israelite religious and political center, and was already important in Genesis. Some scholars view the setting of Shechem (see already Gen 12.6) as a framing device of the Hexateuch. 2–13: A historical summary analogous to the prologues of ancient Near Eastern suzerainty treaties has three subdivisions: the ancestral period (vv. 2–4), the Egyptian period (vv. 5–7), and the conquest period (vv. 8–13). 2–4: A summary of Gen 11.26–46.27. 5–10: A summary of Exodus and Numbers, omitting any reference to the events at Mount Sinai. 9: Balak and Balaam, see Num 22–24; Josh 13.22n. 11: Perhaps a different tradition about Jericho from that found in ch 6. 12: The hornet, a vivid image; see Ex 23.28; Deut 7.20. 13: See Deut 6.10–11. 14–24: A dialogue between Joshua and the people in which the issue of serving the Lord, not other gods, is weighed. The Israelites’ commitment to the covenant with the Lord is formalized. 14: The River, the Euphrates. In Egypt, cf. Ezek 20.5–8; 23.3,8. 23: See Gen 35.2–4. 26: A large stone, cf. 8.32. The oak, see Gen 12.6; 35.4; Deut 11.30; Judg 9.6.

24.29–33: Appendixes. Appendixes are found in several biblical books; here three short notices are given. 29–31: The death and burial of Joshua, with a comment concerning Israel’s faithfulness to the Lord; cf. Judg 2.6–9. 32: The reburial of the bones of Joseph in Shechem in the patriarchal plot (see Gen 50.25; Ex 13.19). Here again our attention is returned to Genesis. 33: The death and burial of the priest Eleazar (see 13.1). This is a surprising ending, but it indicates the strength of the priestly interests in the book.

^a Or Sea of Reeds

^a Heb Salt Sea

^a Or treaty, or testimony; Heb eduth

^b Or Sea of Reeds

^c That is the Hill of the Foreskins

^a Related to Heb galal to roll

^a Gk: Heb devote to destruction Compare 7.21

^b Heb She

^a Mss Syr: MT man by man

^b That is Trouble

^a Heb among the people

^a Heb whole

^b Heb he

^c Cn: Meaning of Heb uncertain

^a Gk: Heb men

^a Heb they

^a Heb moved his tongue

^a Heb Salt Sea

^a Gk: Heb the boundary of King Og

^b Gk: Heb Gilgal

^a Gk Syr Vg: Heb Lidebir

^a Cn: Heb With it

^b Compare Gk: Heb lacks from

^a That is the city of Arba

^b Heb lacks this Arba was

^c Heb Salt Sea

^a That is the city of Arba

^a Meaning of Heb uncertain

^a Cn See 15.9. Heb westward

^b Gk: Heb to the slope over against the Arabah

^c Heb Salt Sea

^d Gk Syr Vg: Heb the Jebusite

^e Heb Gibeath

^f Gk: Heb Kiriath

^a Cn Compare Gk: Heb Mehebel

^a Or to Geliloth

^b Or at Geliloth

^c Or make rebels of us

^a Cn Compare Syr: Heb lacks Witness

^a Or Sea of Reeds

^b Meaning of Heb uncertain

^a Heb one hundred qesitah