Judges

Name and Location in Canon

The book of Judges gets its name from the term used for Israel’s leaders in the transitional period between the conquest of the land in the book of Joshua and the establishment of the monarchy in the book of 1 Samuel. “Judges” (Heb shophetim) is related to the word for “justice” (mishpat); the term is used in nonbiblical sources for rulers and administrators. In the book of Judges, it is used of protagonists whose feats, often larger‐thanlife, rescued Israel from oppression by rival Iron Age peoples and who settled scores more often than legal matters.

Authorship and Literary History

Jewish tradition ascribed the book to Samuel. Modern scholars suggest that Judges is comprised of traditions that were transmitted orally and once written were copied, amplified, and edited for centuries, making the definition of “author” complicated. Its uneven texture is evidence that Judges was not composed in a single moment. Its primary fabric is prose narrative, though it contains a long poem, the Song of Deborah (ch 5). Different sections of the book have distinct editorial formulas and refrains: ch 1 contains conquest notices; chs 2–16 are dominated by a formula describing Israel’s sin, God punishment, and then God sending a judge to relieve them of their misery; the refrain “In those days there was no king in Israel” unifies chs 17–22.

Though the Song of Deborah may stem from near the end of the second millennium bce, the reference to the Assyrian invasion of Samaria in 18.30 makes it clear that Judges was not completed before 722 bce when that event occurred. Correspondences between Judges and Joshua, Samuel, and Kings have led scholars to posit the existence of a “Deuteronomistic History,” a continuous narrative that traced Israel’s history in the Promised Land from the entry into Canaan to the Babylonian exile, making the final form of Judges part of a work that describes events as late as ca. 560 bce (2 Kings 24.27), though likely revised and reworked for several more centuries.

The core of the book of Judges contains narratives about northern heroes (roughly chs 3–8). When these stories were incorporated into the Deuteronomistic History in the late seventh/early sixth century bce, Judges became part of a narrative that ended in Kings with cultural devastation attributed to religious infidelity. In order to adapt the heroic stories to its new setting, historians prefaced chs 3–8 with an editorial in the Deuteronomistic style (2.6–3.6; see also 10.6–9), added a narrative about a southern hero (Othniel, 3.7–11), and appended a downbeat coda to the Gideon narrative (8.27,33). The Deuteronomist also added stories about morally deficient or ambivalent protagonists (Abimelech, Jephthah, and Samson), and the list of “minor judges” (10.1–5; 12.8–15). Like the Deuteronomistic History of which it was a part, the negative tone of this edition of Judges contained both hopes for and prophetic critique of kingship (ch 9).

The extant book emerged when this Deuteronomistic work (roughly, chs 2–16) was framed with a beginning (1.1–2.5) and ending (chs 17–21). These final exterior strata have a clear regional bias. The initial chapters portray the southern tribe of Judah as uniquely successful and the other, northern, tribes as faithless and hapless. The final chapters focus on the misdeeds of the tribe of Dan (in the far north) and Benjamin (just north of Judah), the very sites of shrines that rivaled Judah’s own Temple in Jerusalem, and give special attention to the misdeeds of Saul’s hometown Gibeah and his tribe Benjamin. Thus, though neither is mentioned, the shadows of David and Saul, heroes of southern and northern culture respectively, loom over the concluding section.

Structure and Contents

Judges has three sections. “The days after Joshua” (1.1–2.5) sketches a picture of the various tribes’ fortunes in securing their territories against indigenous Canaanites. Compared with parallel accounts in Joshua, this introduction has a bias toward Judah (compare 1.9–13 with Josh 10.36–40; 1.21 with Josh 15.63). The introductory section ends with the account of a theophany in which the angel of the Lord explains that the failures of the non‐Judahite tribes were the result of syncretism with Canaanite religion (Judg 2.1–5).

The main section, “the days of the judges” (2.6–16.31), consists of narratives governed by a coherent editorial formula: the Israelites “do evil” and as punishment God allows a rival group to oppress them; the Israelites cry to the Lord; the Lord hears their cry and sends a “deliverer”; the enemy is defeated; and “the land has rest.” The stories of these deliverers, also called judges, grow in length and complexity from Othniel (3.7–11), an account spare in details and long on formula, to those in chs 3–5 about Ehud, Deborah, and Barak that focus on a single feat or battle. The next sections, about Gideon (chs 6–9) and Jephthah (chs 10–12), contain multiple stories about each hero. The final narrative, about Samson (chs 13–16), is a kind of biography, presenting the protagonist’s feats in a story from birth to death.

The plots in the central section follow this formula. In the final section, chs 17–21, the pattern dissolves: the tribes are fractious, the judges themselves flawed, and without centralized religious and political leadership Israel’s sense of identity as a people in covenant with the Lord was endangered by gradual assimilation to local cultures. The final section consists of two long stories about illicit shrines, horrific violence, and internecine warfare.

Interpretation

As Genesis through Kings depicts Israel walking through history with God, the plot is punctuated with ups and downs, rises and falls, covenants made and broken. Judges is one of those places where things fall apart. In its earliest version, Judges was an anthology of frontier legends about the time “when locks were long in Israel” (5.2). This hypothetical stage in the development of the book must certainly be preexilic and possibly dates prior to the fall of Samaria in 722 bce.

Once these tales were bound within the introductory and closing frames of the book, the trajectory changed. The cyclical pattern began to spiral downward toward the chaotic lawlessness of the final section. Decentralized tribal leaders could not take Israel forward. Kings, not judges, were the leaders who would assume the mantle of Moses and Joshua, and not just any kings, but Davidic kings whose shrine was the Jerusalem Temple. “There was no king” is the final refrain of Judges, suggesting the necessity of centralized political and religious authority.

Judges ends without closure, demanding that readers turn the page, as it were, to the next installment of Israel’s story. In Christian Bibles, the next book is Ruth with its genial portrait of village life during the days of the Judges, its charming and quietly powerful female characters, and the birth of King David’s grandfather. In Jewish Bibles, the next installment of the story comes in 1 Samuel with the emergence of David and his dynasty in Jerusalem.

In modern biblical scholarship, Judges has become increasingly central in several different areas of inquiry. In biblical archaeology, Judges is at the center of the contentious debates about the origins and early history of Israel. In feminist biblical interpretation, Judges with its vivid women characters and graphic depictions of violence by and against women has become a central text. And with the growing interest in literary approaches to biblical study, Judges has been rediscovered as a neglected masterpiece of Hebrew literature.

Gregory Mobley

¹ After the death of Joshua, the Israelites inquired of the Lord, “Who shall go up first for us against the Canaanites, to fight against them?” ²The Lord said, “Judah shall go up. I hereby give the land into his hand.” ³Judah said to his brother Simeon, “Come up with me into the territory allotted to me, that we may fight against the Canaanites; then I too will go with you into the territory allotted to you.” So Simeon went with him. ⁴Then Judah went up and the Lord gave the Canaanites and the Perizzites into their hand; and they defeated ten thousand of them at Bezek. ⁵They came upon Adonibezek at Bezek, and fought against him, and defeated the Canaanites and the Perizzites. ⁶Adoni‐bezek fled; but they pursued him, and caught him, and cut off his thumbs and big toes. ⁷Adoni‐bezek said, “Seventy kings with their thumbs and big toes cut off used to pick up scraps under my table; as I have done, so God has paid me back.” They brought him to Jerusalem, and he died there.

Tribal conquest in ch 1. Cities marked by square bullets are locales where Canaanites continued to live.

⁸Then the people of Judah fought against Jerusalem and took it. They put it to the sword and set the city on fire. ⁹Afterward the people of Judah went down to fight against the Canaanites who lived in the hill country, in the Negeb, and in the lowland. ¹⁰Judah went against the Canaanites who lived in Hebron (the name of Hebron was formerly Kiriath‐arba); and they defeated Sheshai and Ahiman and Talmai.

¹¹From there they went against the inhabitants of Debir (the name of Debir was formerly Kiriath‐sepher). ¹²Then Caleb said, “Whoever attacks Kiriath‐sepher and takes it, I will give him my daughter Achsah as wife.” ¹³And Othniel son of Kenaz, Caleb’s younger brother, took it; and he gave him his daughter Achsah as wife. ¹⁴When she came to him, she urged him to ask her father for a field. As she dismounted from her donkey, Caleb said to her, “What do you wish?” ¹⁵She said to him, “Give me a present; since you have set me in the land of the Negeb, give me also Gullothmayim.”^a So Caleb gave her Upper Gulloth and Lower Gulloth.

¹⁶The descendants of Hobab^b the Kenite, Moses’ father‐in‐law, went up with the people of Judah from the city of palms into the wilderness of Judah, which lies in the Negeb near Arad. Then they went and settled with the Amalekites.^{c 17}Judah went with his brother Simeon, and they defeated the Canaanites who inhabited Zephath, and devoted it to destruction. So the city was called Hormah. ¹⁸Judah took Gaza with its territory, Ashkelon with its territory, and Ekron with its territory. ¹⁹The Lord was with Judah, and he took possession of the hill country, but could not drive out the inhabitants of the plain, because they had chariots of iron. ²⁰Hebron was given to Caleb, as Moses had said; and he drove out from it the three sons of Anak. ²¹But the Benjaminites did not drive out the Jebusites who lived in Jerusalem; so the Jebusites have lived in Jerusalem among the Benjaminites to this day.

²²The house of Joseph also went up against Bethel; and the Lord was with them. ²³The house of Joseph sent out spies to Bethel (the name of the city was formerly Luz). ²⁴When the spies saw a man coming out of the city, they said to him, “Show us the way into the city, and we will deal kindly with you.” ²⁵So he showed them the way into the city; and they put the city to the sword, but they let the man and all his family go. ²⁶So the man went to the land of the Hittites and built a city, and named it Luz; that is its name to this day.

²⁷Manasseh did not drive out the inhabitants of Beth‐shean and its villages, or Taanach and its villages, or the inhabitants of Dor and its villages, or the inhabitants of Ibleam and its villages, or the inhabitants of Megiddo and its villages; but the Canaanites continued to live in that land. ²⁸When Israel grew strong, they put the Canaanites to forced labor, but did not in fact drive them out.

²⁹And Ephraim did not drive out the Canaanites who lived in Gezer; but the Canaanites lived among them in Gezer.

³⁰Zebulun did not drive out the inhabitants of Kitron, or the inhabitants of Nahalol; but the Canaanites lived among them, and became subject to forced labor.

³¹Asher did not drive out the inhabitants of Acco, or the inhabitants of Sidon, or of Ahlab, or of Achzib, or of Helbah, or of Aphik, or of Rehob; ³²but the Asherites lived among the Canaanites, the inhabitants of the land; for they did not drive them out.

³³Naphtali did not drive out the inhabitants of Beth‐shemesh, or the inhabitants of Beth‐anath, but lived among the Canaanites, the inhabitants of the land; nevertheless the inhabitants of Beth‐shemesh and of Bethanath became subject to forced labor for them.

³⁴The Amorites pressed the Danites back into the hill country; they did not allow them to come down to the plain. ³⁵The Amorites continued to live in Har‐heres, in Aijalon, and in Shaalbim, but the hand of the house of Joseph rested heavily on them, and they became subject to forced labor. ³⁶The border of the Amorites ran from the ascent of Akrabbim, from Sela and upward.

² Now the angel of the Lord went up from Gilgal to Bochim, and said, “I brought you up from Egypt, and brought you into the land that I had promised to your ancestors. I said, ‘I will never break my covenant with you. ²For your part, do not make a covenant with the inhabitants of this land; tear down their altars.’ But you have not obeyed my command. See what you have done! ³So now I say, I will not drive them out before you; but they shall become adversaries^a to you, and their gods shall be a snare to you.” ⁴When the angel of the Lord spoke these words to all the Israelites, the people lifted up their voices and wept. ⁵So they named that place Bochim,^b and there they sacrificed to the Lord.

⁶When Joshua dismissed the people, the Israelites all went to their own inheritances to take possession of the land. ⁷The people worshiped the Lord all the days of Joshua, and all the days of the elders who outlived Joshua, who had seen all the great work that the Lord had done for Israel. ⁸Joshua son of Nun, the servant of the Lord, died at the age of one hundred ten years. ⁹So they buried him within the bounds of his inheritance in Timnath‐heres, in the hill country of Ephraim, north of Mount Gaash. ¹⁰Moreover, that whole generation was gathered to their ancestors, and another generation grew up after them, who did not know the Lord or the work that he had done for Israel.

¹¹Then the Israelites did what was evil in the sight of the Lord and worshiped the Baals; ¹²and they abandoned the Lord, the God of their ancestors, who had brought them out of the land of Egypt; they followed other gods, from among the gods of the peoples who were all around them, and bowed down to them; and they provoked the Lord to anger. ¹³They abandoned the Lord, and worshiped Baal and the Astartes. ¹⁴So the anger of the Lord was kindled against Israel, and he gave them over to plunderers who plundered them, and he sold them into the power of their enemies all around, so that they could no longer withstand their enemies. ¹⁵Whenever they marched out, the hand of the Lord was against them to bring misfortune, as the Lord had warned them and sworn to them; and they were in great distress.

¹⁶Then the Lord raised up judges, who delivered them out of the power of those who plundered them. ¹⁷Yet they did not listen even to their judges; for they lusted after other gods and bowed down to them. They soon turned aside from the way in which their ancestors had walked, who had obeyed the commandments of the Lord; they did not follow their example. ¹⁸Whenever the Lord raised up judges for them, the Lord was with the judge, and he delivered them from the hand of their enemies all the days of the judge; for the Lord would be moved to pity by their groaning because of those who persecuted and oppressed them. ¹⁹But whenever the judge died, they would relapse and behave worse than their ancestors, following other gods, worshiping them and bowing down to them. They would not drop any of their practices or their stubborn ways. ²⁰So the anger of the Lord was kindled against Israel; and he said, “Because this people have transgressed my covenant that I commanded their ancestors, and have not obeyed my voice, ²¹I will no longer drive out before them any of the nations that Joshua left when he died.” ²²In order to test Israel, whether or not they would take care to walk in the way of the Lord as their ancestors did, ²³the Lord had left those nations, not driving them out at once, and had not handed them over to Joshua.

The geography of the book of Judges. Square boxes indicate Philistine cities.

³ Now these are the nations that the Lord left to test all those in Israel who had no experience of any war in Canaan ²(it was only that successive generations of Israelites might know war, to teach those who had no experience of it before): ³the five lords of the Philistines, and all the Canaanites, and the Sidonians, and the Hivites who lived on Mount Lebanon, from Mount Baal‐hermon as far as Lebo‐hamath. ⁴They were for the testing of Israel, to know whether Israel would obey the commandments of the Lord, which he commanded their ancestors by Moses. ⁵So the Israelites lived among the Canaanites, the Hittites, the Amorites, the Perizzites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites; ⁶and they took their daughters as wives for themselves, and their own daughters they gave to their sons; and they worshiped their gods.

⁷The Israelites did what was evil in the sight of the Lord, forgetting the Lord their God, and worshiping the Baals and the Asherahs. ⁸Therefore the anger of the Lord was kindled against Israel, and he sold them into the hand of King Cushan‐rishathaim of Aram‐naharaim; and the Israelites served Cushan‐rishathaim eight years. ⁹But when the Israelites cried out to the Lord, the Lord raised up a deliverer for the Israelites, who delivered them, Othniel son of Kenaz, Caleb’s younger brother. ¹⁰The spirit of the Lord came upon him, and he judged Israel; he went out to war, and the Lord gave King Cushanrishathaim of Aram into his hand; and his hand prevailed over Cushan‐rishathaim. ¹¹So the land had rest forty years. Then Othniel son of Kenaz died.

¹²The Israelites again did what was evil in the sight of the Lord; and the Lord strengthened King Eglon of Moab against Israel, because they had done what was evil in the sight of the Lord. ¹³In alliance with the Ammonites and the Amalekites, he went and defeated Israel; and they took possession of the city of palms. ¹⁴So the Israelites served King Eglon of Moab eighteen years.

¹⁵But when the Israelites cried out to the Lord, the Lord raised up for them a deliverer, Ehud son of Gera, the Benjaminite, a lefthanded man. The Israelites sent tribute by him to King Eglon of Moab. ¹⁶Ehud made for himself a sword with two edges, a cubit in length; and he fastened it on his right thigh under his clothes. ¹⁷Then he presented the tribute to King Eglon of Moab. Now Eglon was a very fat man. ¹⁸When Ehud had finished presenting the tribute, he sent the people who carried the tribute on their way. ¹⁹But he himself turned back at the sculptured stones near Gilgal, and said, “I have a secret message for you, O king.” So the king said,^a “Silence!” and all his attendants went out from his presence. ²⁰Ehud came to him, while he was sitting alone in his cool roof chamber, and said, “I have a message from God for you.” So he rose from his seat. ²¹Then Ehud reached with his left hand, took the sword from his right thigh, and thrust it into Eglon’s^b belly; ²²the hilt also went in after the blade, and the fat closed over the blade, for he did not draw the sword out of his belly; and the dirt came out.^{c 23}Then Ehud went out into the vestibule,^d and closed the doors of the roof chamber on him, and locked them.

²⁴After he had gone, the servants came. When they saw that the doors of the roof chamber were locked, they thought, “He must be relieving himself ^e in the cool chamber.” ²⁵So they waited until they were embarrassed. When he still did not open the doors of the roof chamber, they took the key and opened them. There was their lord lying dead on the floor.

²⁶Ehud escaped while they delayed, and passed beyond the sculptured stones, and escaped to Seirah. ²⁷When he arrived, he sounded the trumpet in the hill country of Ephraim; and the Israelites went down with him from the hill country, having him at their head. ²⁸He said to them, “Follow after me; for the Lord has given your enemies the Moabites into your hand.” So they went down after him, and seized the fords of the Jordan against the Moabites, and allowed no one to cross over. ²⁹At that time they killed about ten thousand of the Moabites, all strong, able‐bodied men; no one escaped. ³⁰So Moab was subdued that day under the hand of Israel. And the land had rest eighty years.

³¹After him came Shamgar son of Anath, who killed six hundred of the Philistines with an oxgoad. He too delivered Israel.

⁴ The Israelites again did what was evil in the sight of the Lord, after Ehud died. ²So the Lord sold them into the hand of King Jabin of Canaan, who reigned in Hazor; the commander of his army was Sisera, who lived in Harosheth‐ha‐goiim. ³Then the Israelites cried out to the Lord for help; for he had nine hundred chariots of iron, and had oppressed the Israelites cruelly twenty years.

⁴At that time Deborah, a prophetess, wife of Lappidoth, was judging Israel. ⁵She used to sit under the palm of Deborah between Ramah and Bethel in the hill country of Ephraim; and the Israelites came up to her for judgment. ⁶She sent and summoned Barak son of Abinoam from Kedesh in Naphtali, and said to him, “The Lord, the God of Israel, commands you, ‘Go, take position at Mount Tabor, bringing ten thousand from the tribe of Naphtali and the tribe of Zebulun. ⁷I will draw out Sisera, the general of Jabin’s army, to meet you by the Wadi Kishon with his chariots and his troops; and I will give him into your hand.’” ⁸Barak said to her, “If you will go with me, I will go; but if you will not go with me, I will not go.” ⁹And she said, “I will surely go with you; nevertheless, the road on which you are going will not lead to your glory, for the Lord will sell Sisera into the hand of a woman.” Then Deborah got up and went with Barak to Kedesh. ¹⁰Barak summoned Zebulun and Naphtali to Kedesh; and ten thousand warriors went up behind him; and Deborah went up with him.

¹¹Now Heber the Kenite had separated from the other Kenites,^a that is, the descendants of Hobab the father‐in‐law of Moses, and had encamped as far away as Elonbezaanannim, which is near Kedesh.

¹²When Sisera was told that Barak son of Abinoam had gone up to Mount Tabor, ¹³Sisera called out all his chariots, nine hundred chariots of iron, and all the troops who were with him, from Harosheth‐ha‐goiim to the Wadi Kishon. ¹⁴Then Deborah said to Barak, “Up! For this is the day on which the Lord has given Sisera into your hand. The Lord is indeed going out before you.” So Barak went down from Mount Tabor with ten thousand warriors following him. ¹⁵And the Lord threw Sisera and all his chariots and all his army into a panic^b before Barak; Sisera got down from his chariot and fled away on foot, ¹⁶while Barak pursued the chariots and the army to Harosheth‐ha‐goiim. All the army of Sisera fell by the sword; no one was left.

¹⁷Now Sisera had fled away on foot to the tent of Jael wife of Heber the Kenite; for there was peace between King Jabin of Hazor and the clan of Heber the Kenite. ¹⁸Jael came out to meet Sisera, and said to him, “Turn aside, my lord, turn aside to me; have no fear.” So he turned aside to her into the tent, and she covered him with a rug. ¹⁹Then he said to her, “Please give me a little water to drink; for I am thirsty.” So she opened a skin of milk and gave him a drink and covered him. ²⁰He said to her, “Stand at the entrance of the tent, and if anybody comes and asks you, ‘Is anyone here?’ say, ‘No.’” ²¹But Jael wife of Heber took a tent peg, and took a hammer in her hand, and went softly to him and drove the peg into his temple, until it went down into the ground—he was lying fast asleep from weariness—and he died. ²²Then, as Barak came in pursuit of Sisera, Jael went out to meet him, and said to him, “Come, and I will show you the man whom you are seeking.” So he went into her tent; and there was Sisera lying dead, with the tent peg in his temple.

²³So on that day God subdued King Jabin of Canaan before the Israelites. ²⁴Then the hand of the Israelites bore harder and harder on King Jabin of Canaan, until they destroyed King Jabin of Canaan.

⁵ Then Deborah and Barak son of Abinoam sang on that day, saying:

²“When locks are long in Israel,

 when the people offer themselves willingly—

 bless^a the Lord!

³“Hear, O kings; give ear, O princes;

 to the Lord I will sing,

 I will make melody to the Lord, the God of Israel.

⁴“Lord, when you went out from Seir,

 when you marched from the region of Edom,

the earth trembled,

 and the heavens poured,

 the clouds indeed poured water.

⁵The mountains quaked before the Lord, the One of Sinai,

 before the Lord, the God of Israel.

⁶“In the days of Shamgar son of Anath,

 in the days of Jael, caravans ceased

 and travelers kept to the byways.

⁷The peasantry prospered in Israel,

 they grew fat on plunder,

because you arose, Deborah,

 arose as a mother in Israel.

⁸When new gods were chosen,

 then war was in the gates.

Was shield or spear to be seen

 among forty thousand in Israel?

⁹My heart goes out to the commanders of Israel

 who offered themselves willingly among the people.

 Bless the Lord.

¹⁰“Tell of it, you who ride on white donkeys,

 you who sit on rich carpets^b

 and you who walk by the way.

¹¹To the sound of musicians^b at the watering places,

 there they repeat the triumphs of the Lord,

 the triumphs of his peasantry in Israel.

“Then down to the gates marched the people of the Lord.

¹²“Awake, awake, Deborah!

 Awake, awake, utter a song!

Arise, Barak, lead away your captives,

 O son of Abinoam.

¹³Then down marched the remnant of the noble;

 the people of the Lord marched down for him^a against the mighty.

¹⁴From Ephraim they set out^b into the valley,^c

 following you, Benjamin, with your kin;

from Machir marched down the commanders,

 and from Zebulun those who bear the marshal’s staff;

¹⁵the chiefs of Issachar came with Deborah,

 and Issachar faithful to Barak;

 into the valley they rushed out at his heels.

Among the clans of Reuben

 there were great searchings of heart.

¹⁶Why did you tarry among the sheepfolds,

 to hear the piping for the flocks?

Among the clans of Reuben

 there were great searchings of heart.

¹⁷Gilead stayed beyond the Jordan;

 and Dan, why did he abide with the ships?

Asher sat still at the coast of the sea,

 settling down by his landings.

¹⁸Zebulun is a people that scorned death;

 Naphtali too, on the heights of the field.

¹⁹“The kings came, they fought;

 then fought the kings of Canaan,

at Taanach, by the waters of Megiddo;

 they got no spoils of silver.

²⁰The stars fought from heaven,

 from their courses they fought against Sisera.

²¹The torrent Kishon swept them away,

 the onrushing torrent, the torrent Kishon.

 March on, my soul, with might!

²²“Then loud beat the horses’ hoofs

 with the galloping, galloping of his steeds.

²³“Curse Meroz, says the angel of the Lord,

 curse bitterly its inhabitants,

because they did not come to the help of the Lord,

 to the help of the Lord against the mighty.

²⁴“Most blessed of women be Jael,

 the wife of Heber the Kenite,

 of tent‐dwelling women most blessed.

²⁵He asked water and she gave him milk,

 she brought him curds in a lordly bowl.

²⁶She put her hand to the tent peg

 and her right hand to the workmen’s mallet;

she struck Sisera a blow,

 she crushed his head,

 she shattered and pierced his temple.

²⁷He sank, he fell,

 he lay still at her feet;

at her feet he sank, he fell;

 where he sank, there he fell dead.

²⁸“Out of the window she peered,

 the mother of Sisera gazed^a through the lattice:

‘Why is his chariot so long in coming?

 Why tarry the hoofbeats of his chariots?’

²⁹Her wisest ladies make answer,

 indeed, she answers the question herself:

³⁰‘Are they not finding and dividing the spoil?—

 A girl or two for every man;

spoil of dyed stuffs for Sisera,

 spoil of dyed stuffs embroidered,

 two pieces of dyed work embroidered for my neck as spoil?’

³¹“So perish all your enemies, O Lord!

 But may your friends be like the sun as it rises in its might.”

And the land had rest forty years.

⁶ The Israelites did what was evil in the sight of the Lord, and the Lord gave them into the hand of Midian seven years. ²The hand of Midian prevailed over Israel; and because of Midian the Israelites provided for themselves hiding places in the mountains, caves and strongholds. ³For whenever the Israelites put in seed, the Midianites and the Amalekites and the people of the east would come up against them. ⁴They would encamp against them and destroy the produce of the land, as far as the neighborhood of Gaza, and leave no sustenance in Israel, and no sheep or ox or donkey. ⁵For they and their livestock would come up, and they would even bring their tents, as thick as locusts; neither they nor their camels could be counted; so they wasted the land as they came in. ⁶Thus Israel was greatly impoverished because of Midian; and the Israelites cried out to the Lord for help.

⁷When the Israelites cried to the Lord on account of the Midianites, ⁸the Lord sent a prophet to the Israelites; and he said to them, “Thus says the Lord, the God of Israel: I led you up from Egypt, and brought you out of the house of slavery; ⁹and I delivered you from the hand of the Egyptians, and from the hand of all who oppressed you, and drove them out before you, and gave you their land; ¹⁰and I said to you, ‘I am the Lord your God; you shall not pay reverence to the gods of the Amorites, in whose land you live.’ But you have not given heed to my voice.”

¹¹Now the angel of the Lord came and sat under the oak at Ophrah, which belonged to Joash the Abiezrite, as his son Gideon was beating out wheat in the wine press, to hide it from the Midianites. ¹²The angel of the Lord appeared to him and said to him, “The Lord is with you, you mighty warrior.” ¹³Gideon answered him, “But sir, if the Lord is with us, why then has all this happened to us? And where are all his wonderful deeds that our ancestors recounted to us, saying, ‘Did not the Lord bring us up from Egypt?’ But now the Lord has cast us off, and given us into the hand of Midian.” ¹⁴Then the Lord turned to him and said, “Go in this might of yours and deliver Israel from the hand of Midian; I hereby commission you.” ¹⁵He responded, “But sir, how can I deliver Israel? My clan is the weakest in Manasseh, and I am the least in my family.” ¹⁶The Lord said to him, “But I will be with you, and you shall strike down the Midianites, every one of them.” ¹⁷Then he said to him, “If now I have found favor with you, then show me a sign that it is you who speak with me. ¹⁸Do not depart from here until I come to you, and bring out my present, and set it before you.” And he said, “I will stay until you return.”

¹⁹So Gideon went into his house and prepared a kid, and unleavened cakes from an ephah of flour; the meat he put in a basket, and the broth he put in a pot, and brought them to him under the oak and presented them. ²⁰The angel of God said to him, “Take the meat and the unleavened cakes, and put them on this rock, and pour out the broth.” And he did so. ²¹Then the angel of the Lord reached out the tip of the staff that was in his hand, and touched the meat and the unleavened cakes; and fire sprang up from the rock and consumed the meat and the unleavened cakes; and the angel of the Lord vanished from his sight. ²²Then Gideon perceived that it was the angel of the Lord; and Gideon said, “Help me, Lord God! For I have seen the angel of the Lord face to face.” ²³But the Lord said to him, “Peace be to you; do not fear, you shall not die.” ²⁴Then Gideon built an altar there to the Lord, and called it, The Lord is peace. To this day it still stands at Ophrah, which belongs to the Abiezrites.

²⁵That night the Lord said to him, “Take your father’s bull, the second bull seven years old, and pull down the altar of Baal that belongs to your father, and cut down the sacred pole^a that is beside it; ²⁶and build an altar to the Lord your God on the top of the stronghold here, in proper order; then take the second bull, and offer it as a burnt offering with the wood of the sacred pole^a that you shall cut down.” ²⁷So Gideon took ten of his servants, and did as the Lord had told him; but because he was too afraid of his family and the townspeople to do it by day, he did it by night.

²⁸When the townspeople rose early in the morning, the altar of Baal was broken down, and the sacred pole^a beside it was cut down, and the second bull was offered on the altar that had been built. ²⁹So they said to one another, “Who has done this?” After searching and inquiring, they were told, “Gideon son of Joash did it.” ³⁰Then the townspeople said to Joash, “Bring out your son, so that he may die, for he has pulled down the altar of Baal and cut down the sacred pole^a beside it.” ³¹But Joash said to all who were arrayed against him, “Will you contend for Baal? Or will you defend his cause? Whoever contends for him shall be put to death by morning. If he is a god, let him contend for himself, because his altar has been pulled down.” ³²Therefore on that day Gideon^b was called Jerubbaal, that is to say, “Let Baal contend against him,” because he pulled down his altar.

³³Then all the Midianites and the Amalekites and the people of the east came together, and crossing the Jordan they encamped in the Valley of Jezreel. ³⁴But the spirit of the Lord took possession of Gideon; and he sounded the trumpet, and the Abiezrites were called out to follow him. ³⁵He sent messengers throughout all Manasseh, and they too were called out to follow him. He also sent messengers to Asher, Zebulun, and Naphtali, and they went up to meet them.

³⁶Then Gideon said to God, “In order to see whether you will deliver Israel by my hand, as you have said, ³⁷I am going to lay a fleece of wool on the threshing floor; if there is dew on the fleece alone, and it is dry on all the ground, then I shall know that you will deliver Israel by my hand, as you have said.” ³⁸And it was so. When he rose early next morning and squeezed the fleece, he wrung enough dew from the fleece to fill a bowl with water. ³⁹Then Gideon said to God, “Do not let your anger burn against me, let me speak one more time; let me, please, make trial with the fleece just once more; let it be dry only on the fleece, and on all the ground let there be dew.” ⁴⁰And God did so that night. It was dry on the fleece only, and on all the ground there was dew.

⁷ Then Jerubbaal (that is, Gideon) and all the troops that were with him rose early and encamped beside the spring of Harod; and the camp of Midian was north of them, below^c the hill of Moreh, in the valley.

²The Lord said to Gideon, “The troops with you are too many for me to give the Midianites into their hand. Israel would only take the credit away from me, saying, ‘My own hand has delivered me.’ ³Now therefore proclaim this in the hearing of the troops, ‘Whoever is fearful and trembling, let him return home.’” Thus Gideon sifted them out;^a twenty‐two thousand returned, and ten thousand remained.

⁴Then the Lord said to Gideon, “The troops are still too many; take them down to the water and I will sift them out for you there. When I say, ‘This one shall go with you,’ he shall go with you; and when I say, ‘This one shall not go with you,’ he shall not go.” ⁵So he brought the troops down to the water; and the Lord said to Gideon, “All those who lap the water with their tongues, as a dog laps, you shall put to one side; all those who kneel down to drink, putting their hands to their mouths,^b you shall put to the other side.” ⁶The number of those that lapped was three hundred; but all the rest of the troops knelt down to drink water. ⁷Then the Lord said to Gideon, “With the three hundred that lapped I will deliver you, and give the Midianites into your hand. Let all the others go to their homes.” ⁸So he took the jars of the troops from their hands,^c and their trumpets; and he sent all the rest of Israel back to their own tents, but retained the three hundred. The camp of Midian was below him in the valley.

⁹That same night the Lord said to him, “Get up, attack the camp; for I have given it into your hand. ¹⁰But if you fear to attack, go down to the camp with your servant Purah; ¹¹and you shall hear what they say, and afterward your hands shall be strengthened to attack the camp.” Then he went down with his servant Purah to the outposts of the armed men that were in the camp. ¹²The Midianites and the Amalekites and all the people of the east lay along the valley as thick as locusts; and their camels were without number, countless as the sand on the seashore. ¹³When Gideon arrived, there was a man telling a dream to his comrade; and he said, “I had a dream, and in it a cake of barley bread tumbled into the camp of Midian, and came to the tent, and struck it so that it fell; it turned upside down, and the tent collapsed.” ¹⁴And his comrade answered, “This is no other than the sword of Gideon son of Joash, a man of Israel; into his hand God has given Midian and all the army.”

¹⁵When Gideon heard the telling of the dream and its interpretation, he worshiped; and he returned to the camp of Israel, and said, “Get up; for the Lord has given the army of Midian into your hand.” ¹⁶After he divided the three hundred men into three companies, and put trumpets into the hands of all of them, and empty jars, with torches inside the jars, ¹⁷he said to them, “Look at me, and do the same; when I come to the outskirts of the camp, do as I do. ¹⁸When I blow the trumpet, I and all who are with me, then you also blow the trumpets around the whole camp, and shout, ‘For the Lord and for Gideon!’”

¹⁹So Gideon and the hundred who were with him came to the outskirts of the camp at the beginning of the middle watch, when they had just set the watch; and they blew the trumpets and smashed the jars that were in their hands. ²⁰So the three companies blew the trumpets and broke the jars, holding in their left hands the torches, and in their right hands the trumpets to blow; and they cried, “A sword for the Lord and for Gideon!” ²¹Every man stood in his place all around the camp, and all the men in camp ran; they cried out and fled. ²²When they blew the three hundred trumpets, the Lord set every man’s sword against his fellow and against all the army; and the army fled as far as Bethshittah toward Zererah,^a as far as the border of Abel‐meholah, by Tabbath. ²³And the men of Israel were called out from Naphtali and from Asher and from all Manasseh, and they pursued after the Midianites.

²⁴Then Gideon sent messengers throughout all the hill country of Ephraim, saying, “Come down against the Midianites and seize the waters against them, as far as Bethbarah, and also the Jordan.” So all the men of Ephraim were called out, and they seized the waters as far as Beth‐barah, and also the Jordan. ²⁵They captured the two captains of Midian, Oreb and Zeeb; they killed Oreb at the rock of Oreb, and Zeeb they killed at the wine press of Zeeb, as they pursued the Midianites. They brought the heads of Oreb and Zeeb to Gideon beyond the Jordan.

⁸ Then the Ephraimites said to him, “What have you done to us, not to call us when you went to fight against the Midianites?” And they upbraided him violently. ²So he said to them, “What have I done now in comparison with you? Is not the gleaning of the grapes of Ephraim better than the vintage of Abiezer? ³God has given into your hands the captains of Midian, Oreb and Zeeb; what have I been able to do in comparison with you?” When he said this, their anger against him subsided.

⁴Then Gideon came to the Jordan and crossed over, he and the three hundred who were with him, exhausted and famished.^{b 5}So he said to the people of Succoth, “Please give some loaves of bread to my followers, for they are exhausted, and I am pursuing Zebah and Zalmunna, the kings of Midian.” ⁶But the officials of Succoth said, “Do you already have in your possession the hands of Zebah and Zalmunna, that we should give bread to your army?” ⁷Gideon replied, “Well then, when the Lord has given Zebah and Zalmunna into my hand, I will trample your flesh on the thorns of the wilderness and on briers.” ⁸From there he went up to Penuel, and made the same request of them; and the people of Penuel answered him as the people of Succoth had answered. ⁹So he said to the people of Penuel, “When I come back victorious, I will break down this tower.”

¹⁰Now Zebah and Zalmunna were in Karkor with their army, about fifteen thousand men, all who were left of all the army of the people of the east; for one hundred twenty thousand men bearing arms had fallen. ¹¹So Gideon went up by the caravan route east of Nobah and Jogbehah, and attacked the army; for the army was off its guard. ¹²Zebah and Zalmunna fled; and he pursued them and took the two kings of Midian, Zebah and Zalmunna, and threw all the army into a panic.

¹³When Gideon son of Joash returned from the battle by the ascent of Heres, ¹⁴he caught a young man, one of the people of Succoth, and questioned him; and he listed for him the officials and elders of Succoth, seventy‐seven people. ¹⁵Then he came to the people of Succoth, and said, “Here are Zebah and Zalmunna, about whom you taunted me, saying, ‘Do you already have in your possession the hands of Zebah and Zalmunna, that we should give bread to your troops who are exhausted?’” ¹⁶So he took the elders of the city and he took thorns of the wilderness and briers and with them he trampled^a the people of Succoth. ¹⁷He also broke down the tower of Penuel, and killed the men of the city.

¹⁸Then he said to Zebah and Zalmunna, “What about the men whom you killed at Tabor?” They answered, “As you are, so were they, every one of them; they resembled the sons of a king.” ¹⁹And he replied, “They were my brothers, the sons of my mother; as the Lord lives, if you had saved them alive, I would not kill you.” ²⁰So he said to Jether his firstborn, “Go kill them!” But the boy did not draw his sword, for he was afraid, because he was still a boy. ²¹Then Zebah and Zalmunna said, “You come and kill us; for as the man is, so is his strength.” So Gideon proceeded to kill Zebah and Zalmunna; and he took the crescents that were on the necks of their camels.

²²Then the Israelites said to Gideon, “Rule over us, you and your son and your grandson also; for you have delivered us out of the hand of Midian.” ²³Gideon said to them, “I will not rule over you, and my son will not rule over you; the Lord will rule over you.” ²⁴Then Gideon said to them, “Let me make a request of you; each of you give me an earring he has taken as booty.” (For the enemy^b had golden earrings, because they were Ishmaelites.) ²⁵“We will willingly give them,” they answered. So they spread a garment, and each threw into it an earring he had taken as booty. ²⁶The weight of the golden earrings that he requested was one thousand seven hundred shekels of gold (apart from the crescents and the pendants and the purple garments worn by the kings of Midian, and the collars that were on the necks of their camels). ²⁷Gideon made an ephod of it and put it in his town, in Ophrah; and all Israel prostituted themselves to it there, and it became a snare to Gideon and to his family. ²⁸So Midian was subdued before the Israelites, and they lifted up their heads no more. So the land had rest forty years in the days of Gideon.

²⁹Jerubbaal son of Joash went to live in his own house. ³⁰Now Gideon had seventy sons, his own offspring, for he had many wives. ³¹His concubine who was in Shechem also bore him a son, and he named him Abimelech. ³²Then Gideon son of Joash died at a good old age, and was buried in the tomb of his father Joash at Ophrah of the Abiezrites.

³³As soon as Gideon died, the Israelites relapsed and prostituted themselves with the Baals, making Baal‐berith their god. ³⁴The Israelites did not remember the Lord their God, who had rescued them from the hand of all their enemies on every side; ³⁵and they did not exhibit loyalty to the house of Jerubbaal (that is, Gideon) in return for all the good that he had done to Israel.

⁹ Now Abimelech son of Jerubbaal went to Shechem to his mother’s kinsfolk and said to them and to the whole clan of his mother’s family, ²“Say in the hearing of all the lords of Shechem, ‘Which is better for you, that all seventy of the sons of Jerubbaal rule over you, or that one rule over you?’ Remember also that I am your bone and your flesh.” ³So his mother’s kinsfolk spoke all these words on his behalf in the hearing of all the lords of Shechem; and their hearts inclined to follow Abimelech, for they said, “He is our brother.” ⁴They gave him seventy pieces of silver out of the temple of Baal‐berith with which Abimelech hired worthless and reckless fellows, who followed him. ⁵He went to his father’s house at Ophrah, and killed his brothers the sons of Jerubbaal, seventy men, on one stone; but Jotham, the youngest son of Jerubbaal, survived, for he hid himself. ⁶Then all the lords of Shechem and all Beth‐millo came together, and they went and made Abimelech king, by the oak of the pillar^a at Shechem.

⁷When it was told to Jotham, he went and stood on the top of Mount Gerizim, and cried aloud and said to them, “Listen to me, you lords of Shechem, so that God may listen to you.

⁸The trees once went out

 to anoint a king over themselves.

So they said to the olive tree,

 ‘Reign over us.’

⁹The olive tree answered them,

 ‘Shall I stop producing my rich oil

  by which gods and mortals are honored,

  and go to sway over the trees?’

¹⁰Then the trees said to the fig tree,

 ‘You come and reign over us.’

¹¹But the fig tree answered them,

 ‘Shall I stop producing my sweetness

  and my delicious fruit,

  and go to sway over the trees?’

¹²Then the trees said to the vine,

 ‘You come and reign over us.’

¹³But the vine said to them,

 ‘Shall I stop producing my wine

  that cheers gods and mortals,

  and go to sway over the trees?’

¹⁴So all the trees said to the bramble,

 ‘You come and reign over us.’

¹⁵And the bramble said to the trees,

 ‘If in good faith you are anointing me king over you,

  then come and take refuge in my shade;

 but if not, let fire come out of the bramble

  and devour the cedars of Lebanon.’

¹⁶“Now therefore, if you acted in good faith and honor when you made Abimelech king, and if you have dealt well with Jerubbaal and his house, and have done to him as his actions deserved— ¹⁷for my father fought for you, and risked his life, and rescued you from the hand of Midian; ¹⁸but you have risen up against my father’s house this day, and have killed his sons, seventy men on one stone, and have made Abimelech, the son of his slave woman, king over the lords of Shechem, because he is your kinsman— ¹⁹if, I say, you have acted in good faith and honor with Jerubbaal and with his house this day, then rejoice in Abimelech, and let him also rejoice in you; ²⁰but if not, let fire come out from Abimelech, and devour the lords of Shechem, and Beth‐millo; and let fire come out from the lords of Shechem, and from Beth‐millo, and devour Abimelech.” ²¹Then Jotham ran away and fled, going to Beer, where he remained for fear of his brother Abimelech.

²²Abimelech ruled over Israel three years. ²³But God sent an evil spirit between Abimelech and the lords of Shechem; and the lords of Shechem dealt treacherously with Abimelech. ²⁴This happened so that the violence done to the seventy sons of Jerubbaal might be avenged^a and their blood be laid on their brother Abimelech, who killed them, and on the lords of Shechem, who strengthened his hands to kill his brothers. ²⁵So, out of hostility to him, the lords of Shechem set ambushes on the mountain tops. They robbed all who passed by them along that way; and it was reported to Abimelech.

²⁶When Gaal son of Ebed moved into Shechem with his kinsfolk, the lords of Shechem put confidence in him. ²⁷They went out into the field and gathered the grapes from their vineyards, trod them, and celebrated. Then they went into the temple of their god, ate and drank, and ridiculed Abimelech. ²⁸Gaal son of Ebed said, “Who is Abimelech, and who are we of Shechem, that we should serve him? Did not the son of Jerubbaal and Zebul his officer serve the men of Hamor father of Shechem? Why then should we serve him? ²⁹If only this people were under my command! Then I would remove Abimelech; I would say^a to him, ‘Increase your army, and come out.’”

³⁰When Zebul the ruler of the city heard the words of Gaal son of Ebed, his anger was kindled. ³¹He sent messengers to Abimelech at Arumah,^b saying, “Look, Gaal son of Ebed and his kinsfolk have come to Shechem, and they are stirring up^c the city against you. ³²Now therefore, go by night, you and the troops that are with you, and lie in wait in the fields. ³³Then early in the morning, as soon as the sun rises, get up and rush on the city; and when he and the troops that are with him come out against you, you may deal with them as best you can.”

³⁴So Abimelech and all the troops with him got up by night and lay in wait against Shechem in four companies. ³⁵When Gaal son of Ebed went out and stood in the entrance of the gate of the city, Abimelech and the troops with him rose from the ambush. ³⁶And when Gaal saw them, he said to Zebul, “Look, people are coming down from the mountain tops!” And Zebul said to him, “The shadows on the mountains look like people to you.” ³⁷Gaal spoke again and said, “Look, people are coming down from Tabbur‐erez, and one company is coming from the direction of Elon‐meonenim.”^{d 38}Then Zebul said to him, “Where is your boast^e now, you who said, ‘Who is Abimelech, that we should serve him?’ Are not these the troops you made light of? Go out now and fight with them.” ³⁹So Gaal went out at the head of the lords of Shechem, and fought with Abimelech. ⁴⁰Abimelech chased him, and he fled before him. Many fell wounded, up to the entrance of the gate. ⁴¹So Abimelech resided at Arumah; and Zebul drove out Gaal and his kinsfolk, so that they could not live on at Shechem.

⁴²On the following day the people went out into the fields. When Abimelech was told, ⁴³he took his troops and divided them into three companies, and lay in wait in the fields. When he looked and saw the people coming out of the city, he rose against them and killed them. ⁴⁴Abimelech and the company that was^f with him rushed forward and stood at the entrance of the gate of the city, while the two companies rushed on all who were in the fields and killed them. ⁴⁵Abimelech fought against the city all that day; he took the city, and killed the people that were in it; and he razed the city and sowed it with salt.

⁴⁶When all the lords of the Tower of Shechem heard of it, they entered the stronghold of the temple of El‐berith. ⁴⁷Abimelech was told that all the lords of the Tower of Shechem were gathered together. ⁴⁸So Abimelech went up to Mount Zalmon, he and all the troops that were with him. Abimelech took an ax in his hand, cut down a bundle of brushwood, and took it up and laid it on his shoulder. Then he said to the troops with him, “What you have seen me do, do quickly, as I have done.” ⁴⁹So every one of the troops cut down a bundle and following Abimelech put it against the stronghold, and they set the stronghold on fire over them, so that all the people of the Tower of Shechem also died, about a thousand men and women.

⁵⁰Then Abimelech went to Thebez, and encamped against Thebez, and took it. ⁵¹But there was a strong tower within the city, and all the men and women and all the lords of the city fled to it and shut themselves in; and they went to the roof of the tower. ⁵²Abimelech came to the tower, and fought against it, and came near to the entrance of the tower to burn it with fire. ⁵³But a certain woman threw an upper millstone on Abimelech’s head, and crushed his skull. ⁵⁴Immediately he called to the young man who carried his armor and said to him, “Draw your sword and kill me, so people will not say about me, ‘A woman killed him.’” So the young man thrust him through, and he died. ⁵⁵When the Israelites saw that Abimelech was dead, they all went home. ⁵⁶Thus God repaid Abimelech for the crime he committed against his father in killing his seventy brothers; ⁵⁷and God also made all the wickedness of the people of Shechem fall back on their heads, and on them came the curse of Jotham son of Jerubbaal.

¹⁰ After Abimelech, Tola son of Puah son of Dodo, a man of Issachar, who lived at Shamir in the hill country of Ephraim, rose to deliver Israel. ²He judged Israel twentythree years. Then he died, and was buried at Shamir.

³After him came Jair the Gileadite, who judged Israel twenty‐two years. ⁴He had thirty sons who rode on thirty donkeys; and they had thirty towns, which are in the land of Gilead, and are called Havvoth‐jair to this day. ⁵Jair died, and was buried in Kamon.

⁶The Israelites again did what was evil in the sight of the Lord, worshiping the Baals and the Astartes, the gods of Aram, the gods of Sidon, the gods of Moab, the gods of the Ammonites, and the gods of the Philistines. Thus they abandoned the Lord, and did not worship him. ⁷So the anger of the Lord was kindled against Israel, and he sold them into the hand of the Philistines and into the hand of the Ammonites, ⁸and they crushed and oppressed the Israelites that year. For eighteen years they oppressed all the Israelites that were beyond the Jordan in the land of the Amorites, which is in Gilead. ⁹The Ammonites also crossed the Jordan to fight against Judah and against Benjamin and against the house of Ephraim; so that Israel was greatly distressed.

¹⁰So the Israelites cried to the Lord, saying, “We have sinned against you, because we have abandoned our God and have worshiped the Baals.” ¹¹And the Lord said to the Israelites, “Did I not deliver you^a from the Egyptians and from the Amorites, from the Ammonites and from the Philistines? ¹²The Sidonians also, and the Amalekites, and the Maonites, oppressed you; and you cried to me, and I delivered you out of their hand. ¹³Yet you have abandoned me and worshiped other gods; therefore I will deliver you no more. ¹⁴Go and cry to the gods whom you have chosen; let them deliver you in the time of your distress.” ¹⁵And the Israelites said to the Lord, “We have sinned; do to us whatever seems good to you; but deliver us this day!” ¹⁶So they put away the foreign gods from among them and worshiped the Lord; and he could no longer bear to see Israel suffer.

¹⁷Then the Ammonites were called to arms, and they encamped in Gilead; and the Israelites came together, and they encamped at Mizpah. ¹⁸The commanders of the people of Gilead said to one another, “Who will begin the fight against the Ammonites? He shall be head over all the inhabitants of Gilead.”

¹¹ Now Jephthah the Gileadite, the son of a prostitute, was a mighty warrior. Gilead was the father of Jephthah. ²Gilead’s wife also bore him sons; and when his wife’s sons grew up, they drove Jephthah away, saying to him, “You shall not inherit anything in our father’s house; for you are the son of another woman.” ³Then Jephthah fled from his brothers and lived in the land of Tob. Outlaws collected around Jephthah and went raiding with him.

⁴After a time the Ammonites made war against Israel. ⁵And when the Ammonites made war against Israel, the elders of Gilead went to bring Jephthah from the land of Tob. ⁶They said to Jephthah, “Come and be our commander, so that we may fight with the Ammonites.” ⁷But Jephthah said to the elders of Gilead, “Are you not the very ones who rejected me and drove me out of my father’s house? So why do you come to me now when you are in trouble?” ⁸The elders of Gilead said to Jephthah, “Nevertheless, we have now turned back to you, so that you may go with us and fight with the Ammonites, and become head over us, over all the inhabitants of Gilead.” ⁹Jephthah said to the elders of Gilead, “If you bring me home again to fight with the Ammonites, and the Lord gives them over to me, I will be your head.” ¹⁰And the elders of Gilead said to Jephthah, “The Lord will be witness between us; we will surely do as you say.” ¹¹So Jephthah went with the elders of Gilead, and the people made him head and commander over them; and Jephthah spoke all his words before the Lord at Mizpah.

¹²Then Jephthah sent messengers to the king of the Ammonites and said, “What is there between you and me, that you have come to me to fight against my land?” ¹³The king of the Ammonites answered the messengers of Jephthah, “Because Israel, on coming from Egypt, took away my land from the Arnon to the Jabbok and to the Jordan; now therefore restore it peaceably.” ¹⁴Once again Jephthah sent messengers to the king of the Ammonites ¹⁵and said to him: “Thus says Jephthah: Israel did not take away the land of Moab or the land of the Ammonites, ¹⁶but when they came up from Egypt, Israel went through the wilderness to the Red Sea^a and came to Kadesh. ¹⁷Israel then sent messengers to the king of Edom, saying, ‘Let us pass through your land’; but the king of Edom would not listen. They also sent to the king of Moab, but he would not consent. So Israel remained at Kadesh. ¹⁸Then they journeyed through the wilderness, went around the land of Edom and the land of Moab, arrived on the east side of the land of Moab, and camped on the other side of the Arnon. They did not enter the territory of Moab, for the Arnon was the boundary of Moab. ¹⁹Israel then sent messengers to King Sihon of the Amorites, king of Heshbon; and Israel said to him, ‘Let us pass through your land to our country.’ ²⁰But Sihon did not trust Israel to pass through his territory; so Sihon gathered all his people together, and encamped at Jahaz, and fought with Israel. ²¹Then the Lord, the God of Israel, gave Sihon and all his people into the hand of Israel, and they defeated them; so Israel occupied all the land of the Amorites, who inhabited that country. ²²They occupied all the territory of the Amorites from the Arnon to the Jabbok and from the wilderness to the Jordan. ²³So now the Lord, the God of Israel, has conquered the Amorites for the benefit of his people Israel. Do you intend to take their place? ²⁴Should you not possess what your god Chemosh gives you to possess? And should we not be the ones to possess everything that the Lord our God has conquered for our benefit? ²⁵Now are you any better than King Balak son of Zippor of Moab? Did he ever enter into conflict with Israel, or did he ever go to war with them? ²⁶While Israel lived in Heshbon and its villages, and in Aroer and its villages, and in all the towns that are along the Arnon, three hundred years, why did you not recover them within that time? ²⁷It is not I who have sinned against you, but you are the one who does me wrong by making war on me. Let the Lord, who is judge, decide today for the Israelites or for the Ammonites.” ²⁸But the king of the Ammonites did not heed the message that Jephthah sent him.

²⁹Then the spirit of the Lord came upon Jephthah, and he passed through Gilead and Manasseh. He passed on to Mizpah of Gilead, and from Mizpah of Gilead he passed on to the Ammonites. ³⁰And Jephthah made a vow to the Lord, and said, “If you will give the Ammonites into my hand, ³¹then whoever comes out of the doors of my house to meet me, when I return victorious from the Ammonites, shall be the Lord’s, to be offered up by me as a burnt offering.” ³²So Jephthah crossed over to the Ammonites to fight against them; and the Lord gave them into his hand. ³³He inflicted a massive defeat on them from Aroer to the neighborhood of Minnith, twenty towns, and as far as Abel‐keramim. So the Ammonites were subdued before the people of Israel.

³⁴Then Jephthah came to his home at Mizpah; and there was his daughter coming out to meet him with timbrels and with dancing. She was his only child; he had no son or daughter except her. ³⁵When he saw her, he tore his clothes, and said, “Alas, my daughter! You have brought me very low; you have become the cause of great trouble to me. For I have opened my mouth to the Lord, and I cannot take back my vow.” ³⁶She said to him, “My father, if you have opened your mouth to the Lord, do to me according to what has gone out of your mouth, now that the Lord has given you vengeance against your enemies, the Ammonites.” ³⁷And she said to her father, “Let this thing be done for me: Grant me two months, so that I may go and wander^a on the mountains, and bewail my virginity, my companions and I.” ³⁸“Go,” he said and sent her away for two months. So she departed, she and her companions, and bewailed her virginity on the mountains. ³⁹At the end of two months, she returned to her father, who did with her according to the vow he had made. She had never slept with a man. So there arose an Israelite custom that ⁴⁰for four days every year the daughters of Israel would go out to lament the daughter of Jephthah the Gileadite.

¹² The men of Ephraim were called to arms, and they crossed to Zaphon and said to Jephthah, “Why did you cross over to fight against the Ammonites, and did not call us to go with you? We will burn your house down over you!” ²Jephthah said to them, “My people and I were engaged in conflict with the Ammonites who oppressed us^a severely. But when I called you, you did not deliver me from their hand. ³When I saw that you would not deliver me, I took my life in my hand, and crossed over against the Ammonites, and the Lord gave them into my hand. Why then have you come up to me this day, to fight against me?” ⁴Then Jephthah gathered all the men of Gilead and fought with Ephraim; and the men of Gilead defeated Ephraim, because they said, “You are fugitives from Ephraim, you Gileadites—in the heart of Ephraim and Manasseh.”^{b 5}Then the Gileadites took the fords of the Jordan against the Ephraimites. Whenever one of the fugitives of Ephraim said, “Let me go over,” the men of Gilead would say to him, “Are you an Ephraimite?” When he said, “No,” ⁶they said to him, “Then say Shibboleth,” and he said, “Sibboleth,” for he could not pronounce it right. Then they seized him and killed him at the fords of the Jordan. Forty‐two thousand of the Ephraimites fell at that time.

⁷Jephthah judged Israel six years. Then Jephthah the Gileadite died, and was buried in his town in Gilead.^c

⁸After him Ibzan of Bethlehem judged Israel. ⁹He had thirty sons. He gave his thirty daughters in marriage outside his clan and brought in thirty young women from outside for his sons. He judged Israel seven years. ¹⁰Then Ibzan died, and was buried at Bethlehem.

¹¹After him Elon the Zebulunite judged Israel; and he judged Israel ten years. ¹²Then Elon the Zebulunite died, and was buried at Aijalon in the land of Zebulun.

¹³After him Abdon son of Hillel the Pirathonite judged Israel. ¹⁴He had forty sons and thirty grandsons, who rode on seventy donkeys; he judged Israel eight years. ¹⁵Then Abdon son of Hillel the Pirathonite died, and was buried at Pirathon in the land of Ephraim, in the hill country of the Amalekites.

¹³ The Israelites again did what was evil in the sight of the Lord, and the Lord gave them into the hand of the Philistines forty years.

²There was a certain man of Zorah, of the tribe of the Danites, whose name was Manoah. His wife was barren, having borne no children. ³And the angel of the Lord appeared to the woman and said to her, “Although you are barren, having borne no children, you shall conceive and bear a son. ⁴Now be careful not to drink wine or strong drink, or to eat anything unclean, ⁵for you shall conceive and bear a son. No razor is to come on his head, for the boy shall be a nazirite^a to God from birth. It is he who shall begin to deliver Israel from the hand of the Philistines.” ⁶Then the woman came and told her husband, “A man of God came to me, and his appearance was like that of an angel^b of God, most awe‐inspiring; I did not ask him where he came from, and he did not tell me his name; ⁷but he said to me, ‘You shall conceive and bear a son. So then drink no wine or strong drink, and eat nothing unclean, for the boy shall be a nazirite^a to God from birth to the day of his death.’”

⁸Then Manoah entreated the Lord, and said, “O Lord, I pray, let the man of God whom you sent come to us again and teach us what we are to do concerning the boy who will be born.” ⁹God listened to Manoah, and the angel of God came again to the woman as she sat in the field; but her husband Manoah was not with her. ¹⁰So the woman ran quickly and told her husband, “The man who came to me the other day has appeared to me.” ¹¹Manoah got up and followed his wife, and came to the man and said to him, “Are you the man who spoke to this woman?” And he said, “I am.” ¹²Then Manoah said, “Now when your words come true, what is to be the boy’s rule of life; what is he to do?” ¹³The angel of the Lord said to Manoah, “Let the woman give heed to all that I said to her. ¹⁴She may not eat of anything that comes from the vine. She is not to drink wine or strong drink, or eat any unclean thing. She is to observe everything that I commanded her.”

¹⁵Manoah said to the angel of the Lord, “Allow us to detain you, and prepare a kid for you.” ¹⁶The angel of the Lord said to Manoah, “If you detain me, I will not eat your food; but if you want to prepare a burnt offering, then offer it to the Lord.” (For Manoah did not know that he was the angel of the Lord.) ¹⁷Then Manoah said to the angel of the Lord, “What is your name, so that we may honor you when your words come true?” ¹⁸But the angel of the Lord said to him, “Why do you ask my name? It is too wonderful.”

¹⁹So Manoah took the kid with the grain offering, and offered it on the rock to the Lord, to him who works^c wonders.^{d 20}When the flame went up toward heaven from the altar, the angel of the Lord ascended in the flame of the altar while Manoah and his wife looked on; and they fell on their faces to the ground. ²¹The angel of the Lord did not appear again to Manoah and his wife. Then Manoah realized that it was the angel of the Lord. ²²And Manoah said to his wife, “We shall surely die, for we have seen God.” ²³But his wife said to him, “If the Lord had meant to kill us, he would not have accepted a burnt offering and a grain offering at our hands, or shown us all these things, or now announced to us such things as these.”

²⁴The woman bore a son, and named him Samson. The boy grew, and the Lord blessed him. ²⁵The spirit of the Lord began to stir him in Mahaneh‐dan, between Zorah and Eshtaol.

¹⁴ Once Samson went down to Timnah, and at Timnah he saw a Philistine woman. ²Then he came up, and told his father and mother, “I saw a Philistine woman at Timnah; now get her for me as my wife.” ³But his father and mother said to him, “Is there not a woman among your kin, or among all our^a people, that you must go to take a wife from the uncircumcised Philistines?” But Samson said to his father, “Get her for me, because she pleases me.” ⁴His father and mother did not know that this was from the Lord; for he was seeking a pretext to act against the Philistines. At that time the Philistines had dominion over Israel.

⁵Then Samson went down with his father and mother to Timnah. When he came to the vineyards of Timnah, suddenly a young lion roared at him. ⁶The spirit of the Lord rushed on him, and he tore the lion apart barehanded as one might tear apart a kid. But he did not tell his father or his mother what he had done. ⁷Then he went down and talked with the woman, and she pleased Samson. ⁸After a while he returned to marry her, and he turned aside to see the carcass of the lion, and there was a swarm of bees in the body of the lion, and honey. ⁹He scraped it out into his hands, and went on, eating as he went. When he came to his father and mother, he gave some to them, and they ate it. But he did not tell them that he had taken the honey from the carcass of the lion.

¹⁰His father went down to the woman, and Samson made a feast there as the young men were accustomed to do. ¹¹When the people saw him, they brought thirty companions to be with him. ¹²Samson said to them, “Let me now put a riddle to you. If you can explain it to me within the seven days of the feast, and find it out, then I will give you thirty linen garments and thirty festal garments. ¹³But if you cannot explain it to me, then you shall give me thirty linen garments and thirty festal garments.” So they said to him, “Ask your riddle; let us hear it.” ¹⁴He said to them,

“Out of the eater came something to eat.

Out of the strong came something sweet.”

But for three days they could not explain the riddle.

¹⁵On the fourth^b day they said to Samson’s wife, “Coax your husband to explain the riddle to us, or we will burn you and your father’s house with fire. Have you invited us here to impoverish us?” ¹⁶So Samson’s wife wept before him, saying, “You hate me; you do not really love me. You have asked a riddle of my people, but you have not explained it to me.” He said to her, “Look, I have not told my father or my mother. Why should I tell you?” ¹⁷She wept before him the seven days that their feast lasted; and because she nagged him, on the seventh day he told her. Then she explained the riddle to her people. ¹⁸The men of the town said to him on the seventh day before the sun went down,

“What is sweeter than honey?

What is stronger than a lion?”

And he said to them,

“If you had not plowed with my heifer,

you would not have found out my riddle.”

¹⁹Then the spirit of the Lord rushed on him, and he went down to Ashkelon. He killed thirty men of the town, took their spoil, and gave the festal garments to those who had explained the riddle. In hot anger he went back to his father’s house. ²⁰And Samson’s wife was given to his companion, who had been his best man.

¹⁵ After a while, at the time of the wheat harvest, Samson went to visit his wife, bringing along a kid. He said, “I want to go into my wife’s room.” But her father would not allow him to go in. ²Her father said, “I was sure that you had rejected her; so I gave her to your companion. Is not her younger sister prettier than she? Why not take her instead?” ³Samson said to them, “This time, when I do mischief to the Philistines, I will be without blame.” ⁴So Samson went and caught three hundred foxes, and took some torches; and he turned the foxes^a tail to tail, and put a torch between each pair of tails. ⁵When he had set fire to the torches, he let the foxes go into the standing grain of the Philistines, and burned up the shocks and the standing grain, as well as the vineyards and^b olive groves. ⁶Then the Philistines asked, “Who has done this?” And they said, “Samson, the son‐in‐law of the Timnite, because he has taken Samson’s wife and given her to his companion.” So the Philistines came up, and burned her and her father. ⁷Samson said to them, “If this is what you do, I swear I will not stop until I have taken revenge on you.” ⁸He struck them down hip and thigh with great slaughter; and he went down and stayed in the cleft of the rock of Etam.

⁹Then the Philistines came up and encamped in Judah, and made a raid on Lehi. ¹⁰The men of Judah said, “Why have you come up against us?” They said, “We have come up to bind Samson, to do to him as he did to us.” ¹¹Then three thousand men of Judah went down to the cleft of the rock of Etam, and they said to Samson, “Do you not know that the Philistines are rulers over us? What then have you done to us?” He replied, “As they did to me, so I have done to them.” ¹²They said to him, “We have come down to bind you, so that we may give you into the hands of the Philistines.” Samson answered them, “Swear to me that you yourselves will not attack me.” ¹³They said to him, “No, we will only bind you and give you into their hands; we will not kill you.” So they bound him with two new ropes, and brought him up from the rock.

¹⁴When he came to Lehi, the Philistines came shouting to meet him; and the spirit of the Lord rushed on him, and the ropes that were on his arms became like flax that has caught fire, and his bonds melted off his hands. ¹⁵Then he found a fresh jawbone of a donkey, reached down and took it, and with it he killed a thousand men. ¹⁶And Samson said,

“With the jawbone of a donkey,

 heaps upon heaps,

with the jawbone of a donkey

 I have slain a thousand men.”

¹⁷When he had finished speaking, he threw away the jawbone; and that place was called Ramath‐lehi.^a

¹⁸By then he was very thirsty, and he called on the Lord, saying, “You have granted this great victory by the hand of your servant. Am I now to die of thirst, and fall into the hands of the uncircumcised?” ¹⁹So God split open the hollow place that is at Lehi, and water came from it. When he drank, his spirit returned, and he revived. Therefore it was named En‐hakkore,^b which is at Lehi to this day. ²⁰And he judged Israel in the days of the Philistines twenty years.

¹⁶ Once Samson went to Gaza, where he saw a prostitute and went in to her. ²The Gazites were told,^c “Samson has come here.” So they circled around and lay in wait for him all night at the city gate. They kept quiet all night, thinking, “Let us wait until the light of the morning; then we will kill him.” ³But Samson lay only until midnight. Then at midnight he rose up, took hold of the doors of the city gate and the two posts, pulled them up, bar and all, put them on his shoulders, and carried them to the top of the hill that is in front of Hebron.

⁴After this he fell in love with a woman in the valley of Sorek, whose name was Delilah. ⁵The lords of the Philistines came to her and said to her, “Coax him, and find out what makes his strength so great, and how we may overpower him, so that we may bind him in order to subdue him; and we will each give you eleven hundred pieces of silver.” ⁶So Delilah said to Samson, “Please tell me what makes your strength so great, and how you could be bound, so that one could subdue you.” ⁷Samson said to her, “If they bind me with seven fresh bowstrings that are not dried out, then I shall become weak, and be like anyone else.” ⁸Then the lords of the Philistines brought her seven fresh bowstrings that had not dried out, and she bound him with them. ⁹While men were lying in wait in an inner chamber, she said to him, “The Philistines are upon you, Samson!” But he snapped the bowstrings, as a strand of fiber snaps when it touches the fire. So the secret of his strength was not known.

¹⁰Then Delilah said to Samson, “You have mocked me and told me lies; please tell me how you could be bound.” ¹¹He said to her, “If they bind me with new ropes that have not been used, then I shall become weak, and be like anyone else.” ¹²So Delilah took new ropes and bound him with them, and said to him, “The Philistines are upon you, Samson!” (The men lying in wait were in an inner chamber.) But he snapped the ropes off his arms like a thread.

¹³Then Delilah said to Samson, “Until now you have mocked me and told me lies; tell me how you could be bound.” He said to her, “If you weave the seven locks of my head with the web and make it tight with the pin, then I shall become weak, and be like anyone else.” ¹⁴So while he slept, Delilah took the seven locks of his head and wove them into the web,^d and made them tight with the pin. Then she said to him, “The Philistines are upon you, Samson!” But he awoke from his sleep, and pulled away the pin, the loom, and the web.

¹⁵Then she said to him, “How can you say, ‘I love you,’ when your heart is not with me? You have mocked me three times now and have not told me what makes your strength so great.” ¹⁶Finally, after she had nagged him with her words day after day, and pestered him, he was tired to death. ¹⁷So he told her his whole secret, and said to her, “A razor has never come upon my head; for I have been a nazirite^a to God from my mother’s womb. If my head were shaved, then my strength would leave me; I would become weak, and be like anyone else.”

¹⁸When Delilah realized that he had told her his whole secret, she sent and called the lords of the Philistines, saying, “This time come up, for he has told his whole secret to me.” Then the lords of the Philistines came up to her, and brought the money in their hands. ¹⁹She let him fall asleep on her lap; and she called a man, and had him shave off the seven locks of his head. He began to weaken,^b and his strength left him. ²⁰Then she said, “The Philistines are upon you, Samson!” When he awoke from his sleep, he thought, “I will go out as at other times, and shake myself free.” But he did not know that the Lord had left him. ²¹So the Philistines seized him and gouged out his eyes. They brought him down to Gaza and bound him with bronze shackles; and he ground at the mill in the prison. ²²But the hair of his head began to grow again after it had been shaved.

²³Now the lords of the Philistines gathered to offer a great sacrifice to their god Dagon, and to rejoice; for they said, “Our god has given Samson our enemy into our hand.” ²⁴When the people saw him, they praised their god; for they said, “Our god has given our enemy into our hand, the ravager of our country, who has killed many of us.” ²⁵And when their hearts were merry, they said, “Call Samson, and let him entertain us.” So they called Samson out of the prison, and he performed for them. They made him stand between the pillars; ²⁶and Samson said to the attendant who held him by the hand, “Let me feel the pillars on which the house rests, so that I may lean against them.” ²⁷Now the house was full of men and women; all the lords of the Philistines were there, and on the roof there were about three thousand men and women, who looked on while Samson performed.

²⁸Then Samson called to the Lord and said, “Lord God, remember me and strengthen me only this once, O God, so that with this one act of revenge I may pay back the Philistines for my two eyes.”^{c 29}And Samson grasped the two middle pillars on which the house rested, and he leaned his weight against them, his right hand on the one and his left hand on the other. ³⁰Then Samson said, “Let me die with the Philistines.” He strained with all his might; and the house fell on the lords and all the people who were in it. So those he killed at his death were more than those he had killed during his life. ³¹Then his brothers and all his family came down and took him and brought him up and buried him between Zorah and Eshtaol in the tomb of his father Manoah. He had judged Israel twenty years.

¹⁷ There was a man in the hill country of Ephraim whose name was Micah. ²He said to his mother, “The eleven hundred pieces of silver that were taken from you, about which you uttered a curse, and even spoke it in my hearing,—that silver is in my possession; I took it; but now I will return it to you.”^a And his mother said, “May my son be blessed by the Lord!” ³Then he returned the eleven hundred pieces of silver to his mother; and his mother said, “I consecrate the silver to the Lord from my hand for my son, to make an idol of cast metal.” ⁴So when he returned the money to his mother, his mother took two hundred pieces of silver, and gave it to the silversmith, who made it into an idol of cast metal; and it was in the house of Micah. ⁵This man Micah had a shrine, and he made an ephod and teraphim, and installed one of his sons, who became his priest. ⁶In those days there was no king in Israel; all the people did what was right in their own eyes.

⁷Now there was a young man of Bethlehem in Judah, of the clan of Judah. He was a Levite residing there. ⁸This man left the town of Bethlehem in Judah, to live wherever he could find a place. He came to the house of Micah in the hill country of Ephraim to carry on his work.^{b 9}Micah said to him, “From where do you come?” He replied, “I am a Levite of Bethlehem in Judah, and I am going to live wherever I can find a place.” ¹⁰Then Micah said to him, “Stay with me, and be to me a father and a priest, and I will give you ten pieces of silver a year, a set of clothes, and your living.”^{c 11}The Levite agreed to stay with the man; and the young man became to him like one of his sons. ¹²So Micah installed the Levite, and the young man became his priest, and was in the house of Micah. ¹³Then Micah said, “Now I know that the Lord will prosper me, because the Levite has become my priest.”

¹⁸ In those days there was no king in Israel. And in those days the tribe of the Danites was seeking for itself a territory to live in; for until then no territory among the tribes of Israel had been allotted to them. ²So the Danites sent five valiant men from the whole number of their clan, from Zorah and from Eshtaol, to spy out the land and to explore it; and they said to them, “Go, explore the land.” When they came to the hill country of Ephraim, to the house of Micah, they stayed there. ³While they were at Micah’s house, they recognized the voice of the young Levite; so they went over and asked him, “Who brought you here? What are you doing in this place? What is your business here?” ⁴He said to them, “Micah did such and such for me, and he hired me, and I have become his priest.” ⁵Then they said to him, “Inquire of God that we may know whether the mission we are undertaking will succeed.” ⁶The priest replied, “Go in peace. The mission you are on is under the eye of the Lord.”

⁷The five men went on, and when they came to Laish, they observed the people who were there living securely, after the manner of the Sidonians, quiet and unsuspecting, lacking^a nothing on earth, and possessing wealth.^b Furthermore, they were far from the Sidonians and had no dealings with Aram.^{c 8}When they came to their kinsfolk at Zorah and Eshtaol, they said to them, “What do you report?” ⁹They said, “Come, let us go up against them; for we have seen the land, and it is very good. Will you do nothing? Do not be slow to go, but enter in and possess the land. ¹⁰When you go, you will come to an unsuspecting people. The land is broad—God has indeed given it into your hands—a place where there is no lack of anything on earth.”

¹¹Six hundred men of the Danite clan, armed with weapons of war, set out from Zorah and Eshtaol, ¹²and went up and encamped at Kiriath‐jearim in Judah. On this account that place is called Mahanehdan^d to this day; it is west of Kiriath‐jearim. ¹³From there they passed on to the hill country of Ephraim, and came to the house of Micah.

¹⁴Then the five men who had gone to spy out the land (that is, Laish) said to their comrades, “Do you know that in these buildings there are an ephod, teraphim, and an idol of cast metal? Now therefore consider what you will do.” ¹⁵So they turned in that direction and came to the house of the young Levite, at the home of Micah, and greeted him. ¹⁶While the six hundred men of the Danites, armed with their weapons of war, stood by the entrance of the gate, ¹⁷the five men who had gone to spy out the land proceeded to enter and take the idol of cast metal, the ephod, and the teraphim.^e The priest was standing by the entrance of the gate with the six hundred men armed with weapons of war. ¹⁸When the men went into Micah’s house and took the idol of cast metal, the ephod, and the teraphim, the priest said to them, “What are you doing?” ¹⁹They said to him, “Keep quiet! Put your hand over your mouth, and come with us, and be to us a father and a priest. Is it better for you to be priest to the house of one person, or to be priest to a tribe and clan in Israel?” ²⁰Then the priest accepted the offer. He took the ephod, the teraphim, and the idol, and went along with the people.

²¹So they resumed their journey, putting the little ones, the livestock, and the goods in front of them. ²²When they were some distance from the home of Micah, the men who were in the houses near Micah’s house were called out, and they overtook the Danites. ²³They shouted to the Danites, who turned around and said to Micah, “What is the matter that you come with such a company?” ²⁴He replied, “You take my gods that I made, and the priest, and go away, and what have I left? How then can you ask me, ‘What is the matter?’” ²⁵And the Danites said to him, “You had better not let your voice be heard among us or else hot‐tempered fellows will attack you, and you will lose your life and the lives of your household.” ²⁶Then the Danites went their way. When Micah saw that they were too strong for him, he turned and went back to his home.

²⁷The Danites, having taken what Micah had made, and the priest who belonged to him, came to Laish, to a people quiet and unsuspecting, put them to the sword, and burned down the city. ²⁸There was no deliverer, because it was far from Sidon and they had no dealings with Aram.^f It was in the valley that belongs to Beth‐rehob. They rebuilt the city, and lived in it. ²⁹They named the city Dan, after their ancestor Dan, who was born to Israel; but the name of the city was formerly Laish. ³⁰Then the Danites set up the idol for themselves. Jonathan son of Gershom, son of Moses,^a and his sons were priests to the tribe of the Danites until the time the land went into captivity. ³¹So they maintained as their own Micah’s idol that he had made, as long as the house of God was at Shiloh.

chs 19–21: The Benjaminite War.

¹⁹ In those days, when there was no king in Israel, a certain Levite, residing in the remote parts of the hill country of Ephraim, took to himself a concubine from Bethlehem in Judah. ²But his concubine became angry with^b him, and she went away from him to her father’s house at Bethlehem in Judah, and was there some four months. ³Then her husband set out after her, to speak tenderly to her and bring her back. He had with him his servant and a couple of donkeys. When he reached^c her father’s house, the girl’s father saw him and came with joy to meet him. ⁴His father‐in‐law, the girl’s father, made him stay, and he remained with him three days; so they ate and drank, and he^d stayed there. ⁵On the fourth day they got up early in the morning, and he prepared to go; but the girl’s father said to his son‐in‐law, “Fortify yourself with a bit of food, and after that you may go.” ⁶So the two men sat and ate and drank together; and the girl’s father said to the man, “Why not spend the night and enjoy yourself?” ⁷When the man got up to go, his father‐in‐law kept urging him until he spent the night there again. ⁸On the fifth day he got up early in the morning to leave; and the girl’s father said, “Fortify yourself.” So they lingered^e until the day declined, and the two of them ate and drank.^{f 9}When the man with his concubine and his servant got up to leave, his father‐in‐law, the girl’s father, said to him, “Look, the day has worn on until it is almost evening. Spend the night. See, the day has drawn to a close. Spend the night here and enjoy yourself. Tomorrow you can get up early in the morning for your journey, and go home.”

¹⁰But the man would not spend the night; he got up and departed, and arrived opposite Jebus (that is, Jerusalem). He had with him a couple of saddled donkeys, and his concubine was with him. ¹¹When they were near Jebus, the day was far spent, and the servant said to his master, “Come now, let us turn aside to this city of the Jebusites, and spend the night in it.” ¹²But his master said to him, “We will not turn aside into a city of foreigners, who do not belong to the people of Israel; but we will continue on to Gibeah.” ¹³Then he said to his servant, “Come, let us try to reach one of these places, and spend the night at Gibeah or at Ramah.” ¹⁴So they passed on and went their way; and the sun went down on them near Gibeah, which belongs to Benjamin. ¹⁵They turned aside there, to go in and spend the night at Gibeah. He went in and sat down in the open square of the city, but no one took them in to spend the night.

¹⁶Then at evening there was an old man coming from his work in the field. The man was from the hill country of Ephraim, and he was residing in Gibeah. (The people of the place were Benjaminites.) ¹⁷When the old man looked up and saw the wayfarer in the open square of the city, he said, “Where are you going and where do you come from?” ¹⁸He answered him, “We are passing from Bethlehem in Judah to the remote parts of the hill country of Ephraim, from which I come. I went to Bethlehem in Judah; and I am going to my home.^a Nobody has offered to take me in. ¹⁹We your servants have straw and fodder for our donkeys, with bread and wine for me and the woman and the young man along with us. We need nothing more.” ²⁰The old man said, “Peace be to you. I will care for all your wants; only do not spend the night in the square.” ²¹So he brought him into his house, and fed the donkeys; they washed their feet, and ate and drank.

²²While they were enjoying themselves, the men of the city, a perverse lot, surrounded the house, and started pounding on the door. They said to the old man, the master of the house, “Bring out the man who came into your house, so that we may have intercourse with him.” ²³And the man, the master of the house, went out to them and said to them, “No, my brothers, do not act so wickedly. Since this man is my guest, do not do this vile thing. ²⁴Here are my virgin daughter and his concubine; let me bring them out now. Ravish them and do whatever you want to them; but against this man do not do such a vile thing.” ²⁵But the men would not listen to him. So the man seized his concubine, and put her out to them. They wantonly raped her, and abused her all through the night until the morning. And as the dawn began to break, they let her go. ²⁶As morning appeared, the woman came and fell down at the door of the man’s house where her master was, until it was light.

²⁷In the morning her master got up, opened the doors of the house, and when he went out to go on his way, there was his concubine lying at the door of the house, with her hands on the threshold. ²⁸“Get up,” he said to her, “we are going.” But there was no answer. Then he put her on the donkey; and the man set out for his home. ²⁹When he had entered his house, he took a knife, and grasping his concubine he cut her into twelve pieces, limb by limb, and sent her throughout all the territory of Israel. ³⁰Then he commanded the men whom he sent, saying, “Thus shall you say to all the Israelites, ‘Has such a thing ever happened^a since the day that the Israelites came up from the land of Egypt until this day? Consider it, take counsel, and speak out.’”

²⁰ Then all the Israelites came out, from Dan to Beer‐sheba, including the land of Gilead, and the congregation assembled in one body before the Lord at Mizpah. ²The chiefs of all the people, of all the tribes of Israel, presented themselves in the assembly of the people of God, four hundred thousand foot‐soldiers bearing arms. ³(Now the Benjaminites heard that the people of Israel had gone up to Mizpah.) And the Israelites said, “Tell us, how did this criminal act come about?” ⁴The Levite, the husband of the woman who was murdered, answered, “I came to Gibeah that belongs to Benjamin, I and my concubine, to spend the night. ⁵The lords of Gibeah rose up against me, and surrounded the house at night. They intended to kill me, and they raped my concubine until she died. ⁶Then I took my concubine and cut her into pieces, and sent her throughout the whole extent of Israel’s territory; for they have committed a vile outrage in Israel. ⁷So now, you Israelites, all of you, give your advice and counsel here.”

⁸All the people got up as one, saying, “We will not any of us go to our tents, nor will any of us return to our houses. ⁹But now this is what we will do to Gibeah: we will go up^b against it by lot. ¹⁰We will take ten men of a hundred throughout all the tribes of Israel, and a hundred of a thousand, and a thousand of ten thousand, to bring provisions for the troops, who are going to repay^c Gibeah of Benjamin for all the disgrace that they have done in Israel.” ¹¹So all the men of Israel gathered against the city, united as one.

¹²The tribes of Israel sent men through all the tribe of Benjamin, saying, “What crime is this that has been committed among you? ¹³Now then, hand over those scoundrels in Gibeah, so that we may put them to death, and purge the evil from Israel.” But the Benjaminites would not listen to their kinsfolk, the Israelites. ¹⁴The Benjaminites came together out of the towns to Gibeah, to go out to battle against the Israelites. ¹⁵On that day the Benjaminites mustered twenty‐six thousand armed men from their towns, besides the inhabitants of Gibeah. ¹⁶Of all this force, there were seven hundred picked men who were left‐handed; every one could sling a stone at a hair, and not miss. ¹⁷And the Israelites, apart from Benjamin, mustered four hundred thousand armed men, all of them warriors.

¹⁸The Israelites proceeded to go up to Bethel, where they inquired of God, “Which of us shall go up first to battle against the Benjaminites?” And the Lord answered, “Judah shall go up first.”

¹⁹Then the Israelites got up in the morning, and encamped against Gibeah. ²⁰The Israelites went out to battle against Benjamin; and the Israelites drew up the battle line against them at Gibeah. ²¹The Benjaminites came out of Gibeah, and struck down on that day twenty‐two thousand of the Israelites. ^23dThe Israelites went up and wept before the Lord until the evening; and they inquired of the Lord, “Shall we again draw near to battle against our kinsfolk the Benjaminites?” And the Lord said, “Go up against them.” ²²The Israelites took courage, and again formed the battle line in the same place where they had formed it on the first day.

²⁴So the Israelites advanced against the Benjaminites the second day. ²⁵Benjamin moved out against them from Gibeah the second day, and struck down eighteen thousand of the Israelites, all of them armed men. ²⁶Then all the Israelites, the whole army, went back to Bethel and wept, sitting there before the Lord; they fasted that day until evening. Then they offered burnt offerings and sacrifices of well‐being before the Lord. ²⁷And the Israelites inquired of the Lord (for the ark of the covenant of God was there in those days, ²⁸and Phinehas son of Eleazar, son of Aaron, ministered before it in those days), saying, “Shall we go out once more to battle against our kinsfolk the Benjaminites, or shall we desist?” The Lord answered, “Go up, for tomorrow I will give them into your hand.”

²⁹So Israel stationed men in ambush around Gibeah. ³⁰Then the Israelites went up against the Benjaminites on the third day, and set themselves in array against Gibeah, as before. ³¹When the Benjaminites went out against the army, they were drawn away from the city. As before they began to inflict casualties on the troops, along the main roads, one of which goes up to Bethel and the other to Gibeah, as well as in the open country, killing about thirty men of Israel. ³²The Benjaminites thought, “They are being routed before us, as previously.” But the Israelites said, “Let us retreat and draw them away from the city toward the roads.” ³³The main body of the Israelites drew back its battle line to Baal‐tamar, while those Israelites who were in ambush rushed out of their place west^a of Geba. ³⁴There came against Gibeah ten thousand picked men out of all Israel, and the battle was fierce. But the Benjaminites did not realize that disaster was close upon them.

³⁵The Lord defeated Benjamin before Israel; and the Israelites destroyed twenty‐five thousand one hundred men of Benjamin that day, all of them armed.

³⁶Then the Benjaminites saw that they were defeated.^b

The Israelites gave ground to Benjamin, because they trusted to the troops in ambush that they had stationed against Gibeah. ³⁷The troops in ambush rushed quickly upon Gibeah. Then they put the whole city to the sword. ³⁸Now the agreement between the main body of Israel and the men in ambush was that when they sent up a cloud of smoke out of the city ³⁹the main body of Israel should turn in battle. But Benjamin had begun to inflict casualties on the Israelites, killing about thirty of them; so they thought, “Surely they are defeated before us, as in the first battle.” ⁴⁰But when the cloud, a column of smoke, began to rise out of the city, the Benjaminites looked behind them—and there was the whole city going up in smoke toward the sky! ⁴¹Then the main body of Israel turned, and the Benjaminites were dismayed, for they saw that disaster was close upon them. ⁴²Therefore they turned away from the Israelites in the direction of the wilderness; but the battle overtook them, and those who came out of the city^c were slaughtering them in between.^{d 43}Cutting down^e the Benjaminites, they pursued them from Nohah^f and trod them down as far as a place east of Gibeah. ⁴⁴Eighteen thousand Benjaminites fell, all of them courageous fighters. ⁴⁵When they turned and fled toward the wilderness to the rock of Rimmon, five thousand of them were cut down on the main roads, and they were pursued as far as Gidom, and two thousand of them were slain. ⁴⁶So all who fell that day of Benjamin were twenty‐five thousand arms‐bearing men, all of them courageous fighters. ⁴⁷But six hundred turned and fled toward the wilderness to the rock of Rimmon, and remained at the rock of Rimmon for four months. ⁴⁸Meanwhile, the Israelites turned back against the Benjaminites, and put them to the sword—the city, the people, the animals, and all that remained. Also the remaining towns they set on fire.

²¹ Now the Israelites had sworn at Mizpah, “No one of us shall give his daughter in marriage to Benjamin.” ²And the people came to Bethel, and sat there until evening before God, and they lifted up their voices and wept bitterly. ³They said, “O Lord, the God of Israel, why has it come to pass that today there should be one tribe lacking in Israel?” ⁴On the next day, the people got up early, and built an altar there, and offered burnt offerings and sacrifices of well‐being. ⁵Then the Israelites said, “Which of all the tribes of Israel did not come up in the assembly to the Lord?” For a solemn oath had been taken concerning whoever did not come up to the Lord to Mizpah, saying, “That one shall be put to death.” ⁶But the Israelites had compassion for Benjamin their kin, and said, “One tribe is cut off from Israel this day. ⁷What shall we do for wives for those who are left, since we have sworn by the Lord that we will not give them any of our daughters as wives?”

⁸Then they said, “Is there anyone from the tribes of Israel who did not come up to the Lord to Mizpah?” It turned out that no one from Jabesh‐gilead had come to the camp, to the assembly. ⁹For when the roll was called among the people, not one of the inhabitants of Jabesh‐gilead was there. ¹⁰So the congregation sent twelve thousand soldiers there and commanded them, “Go, put the inhabitants of Jabesh‐gilead to the sword, including the women and the little ones. ¹¹This is what you shall do; every male and every woman that has lain with a male you shall devote to destruction.” ¹²And they found among the inhabitants of Jabesh‐gilead four hundred young virgins who had never slept with a man and brought them to the camp at Shiloh, which is in the land of Canaan.

¹³Then the whole congregation sent word to the Benjaminites who were at the rock of Rimmon, and proclaimed peace to them. ¹⁴Benjamin returned at that time; and they gave them the women whom they had saved alive of the women of Jabesh‐gilead; but they did not suffice for them.

¹⁵The people had compassion on Benjamin because the Lord had made a breach in the tribes of Israel. ¹⁶So the elders of the congregation said, “What shall we do for wives for those who are left, since there are no women left in Benjamin?” ¹⁷And they said, “There must be heirs for the survivors of Benjamin, in order that a tribe may not be blotted out from Israel. ¹⁸Yet we cannot give any of our daughters to them as wives.”For the Israelites had sworn, “Cursed be anyone who gives a wife to Benjamin.” ¹⁹So they said, “Look, the yearly festival of the Lord is taking place at Shiloh, which is north of Bethel, on the east of the highway that goes up from Bethel to Shechem, and south of Lebonah.” ²⁰And they instructed the Benjaminites, saying, “Go and lie in wait in the vineyards, ²¹and watch; when the young women of Shiloh come out to dance in the dances, then come out of the vineyards and each of you carry off a wife for himself from the young women of Shiloh, and go to the land of Benjamin. ²²Then if their fathers or their brothers come to complain to us, we will say to them, ‘Be generous and allow us to have them; because we did not capture in battle a wife for each man. But neither did you incur guilt by giving your daughters to them.’” ²³The Benjaminites did so; they took wives for each of them from the dancers whom they abducted. Then they went and returned to their territory, and rebuilt the towns, and lived in them. ²⁴So the Israelites departed from there at that time by tribes and families, and they went out from there to their own territories.

²⁵In those days there was no king in Israel; all the people did what was right in their own eyes.

1.1–2.5: The days after Joshua. The opening section sketches the uneven success of the Israelites, tribe by tribe, in securing the land to which Joshua brought them. The prominence and singular success of Judah (vv. 1–20) gestures toward David without mentioning him. The accounts here are often at odds with passages in Joshua.

1.1–20: The success of the Judahites: Judah, accompanied by Simeon, enters Canaan near Jericho (1.16), ascends the southern highlands, and advances to the south. 1: After the death of Joshua: the initial phrase informs readers that this continues the story from the book of Joshua, Moses’s hand‐picked successor (Num 27.18; Deut 34.9); his death creates a leadership vacuum that the book details. Inquired through oracular means (18.5; Num 27.21; 1 Sam 10.22; 28.6). Who shall go first, draw first blood in warfare, with high risk and reward. Canaanites, the pre‐Israelite inhabitants of the land. 3: His brother Simeon, the patriarchs Judah and Simeon were both sons of Leah (Gen 29.33,35). 4: Perizzites, one of the traditional seven nations of Canaan (Deut 7.1). Ten thousand, the number could be exaggerated or reflect a use of the word for “thousand” (Heb “˒elep”) meaning “militia‐unit.” Bezek, probably Khirbet Izbiq, ca. 15 mi (24 km) northeast of Shechem. 5: Adoni‐bezek, cf. Adoni‐zedek, a king of Jerusalem according to Josh 10.1. 7: Seventy kings, the number of his victims suggests a warlord as fierce as the primeval strongman Lamech (Gen 4.24) and anticipates other accounts of royal cruelty, by Abimelech (9.5) and Jehu (2 Kings 10.1–11). 8: Judah took Jerusalem, contradicted by v. 21 and 19.10–12. 10: An individual, Caleb, not the tribe of Judah, is credited with the attack on Hebron in v. 20 and Josh 15.34. Sheshai, Ahiman, and Talmai, a trio of legendary giants among the people known as the Anakites/Anakim (“the sons of Anak”) mentioned in v. 20 (Num 13.22; Deut 2.10; Josh 15.14). 11–15: This anecdote establishes the claim of villagers from Debir, probably Khirbet Rabud, 10 mi (16 km) south of Hebron, to springs actually closer to and coveted by Hebronites; cf. Josh 15.15–19. 12: Caleb, the hero of the Israelite spies from the days of Moses (Num 13.30; 14.24; 26.65; Deut 1.36). Saul also offers his daughters as a prize (1 Sam 17.25; 18.17,27). 13: Othniel is mentioned in Josh 15.17 and is the first of the judges (3.7–11). 14: As she dismounted, out of respect, before making a request (see Gen 24.64; 1 Sam 25.23). 16: Hobab, a local guide for the Israelites in the wilderness. Though named as Moses’ father‐in‐law here and in 4.11, he is identified as Moses’s brother‐in‐law in Num 10.29, which knows Moses’s father‐in‐law as Reuel (see also Ex 2.18); elsewhere in Exodus he is known as Jethro. City of palms, probably Jericho (3.13; Deut 34.3; 2 Chr 28.15). Arad, ca. 22 mi (36 km) south of Hebron. The Amalekites were a nomadic people who conflicted with Israel after the Exodus (Ex 17.8–16; Deut 25.17–18) and who reappear in Jewish tradition as archetypal enemies (see Judg 6.3; 1 Sam 15.1–7). By contrast, Kenites (4.11,17; 5.24), though related to the Amalekites, were seen as friendly. 17: Devoted to destruction, the “ḥerem” (the “ban”), a practice of ancient warfare in which conquered peoples, livestock, and artifacts were annihilated and offered to the deity; see Deut 13.15–19; Josh 6.21. 18: Gaza, Ashkelon, Ekron, in 14.19; 16.21; 1 Sam 6.17, these cities are still under Philistine control, but here their conquest is attributed to Judah. 19: Chariots of iron had wooden frames with iron hardware and fittings; cf. Josh 17.16. 20: Anak, see v. 10n.

1.21–36: The failures of the northern tribes. The tribes that later comprised the northern kingdom of Israel fail to uproot the Canaanites in their areas, leading to religious syncretism for which an angel in 2.1–3 condemns them. For cities in the section that can be identified, see the map on p. 365. 21: In Josh 15.63 Judah, not Benjamin, failed to drive the Jebusites from Jerusalem. 22: House of Joseph, the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh (Gen 46.20). 24–25: Cf. Josh 2.12–14; 6.25. 26: The land of the Hittites, here meaning northern Syria (cf. Josh 1.4) rather than Anatolia, as in earlier periods. 27–33: Cf. parallel passages in Joshua; for Manasseh (v. 27), Josh 17.1–13; for Ephraim (v. 29), Josh 16.10; for Zebulun (v. 30), Josh 19.10–16; for Asher (vv. 31–32), Josh 19.24–31; for Naphtali (v. 33), Josh 19.32–39. 34: Amorites, another term for the pre‐Israelite inhabitants of Canaan. Danites, see chs 14–16; 18.

2.1–5: An angel delivers a mixed message. An angel or divine messenger speaks like a prophet and denounces Israel for religious impurity. 2.1: Gilgal, where the Israelites crossed the Jordan and erected a shrine with twelve standing stones (Josh 4.19–20; 5.10); thus, a suitable portal for an angel. Bochim (lit., “Weepers,” see vv. 4–5), probably Bethel, where Jacob once saw angels (Gen 28.12). 2: Ex 34.10–16; Deut 7.5. 3: Num 33.55; Josh 23.13. 4: Lifted up their voices and wept, Bethel was the site of a “weeping tree” (Gen 35.8).

2.6–16.31: The days of the judges. The core of the book is comprised of tales about the era’s leaders.

2.6–3.6: Introduction to the days of the judges. A summary contains the cyclical formula (2.11–19) that shapes the subsequent episodes and traces the era’s trajectory of gradual decline. This is followed by a series of supplements.

2.6–10: Recap of the ending of Joshua. Resumption of the narrative from Josh 24.28–31; at one point, this may have joined Judges to Joshua, suggesting that 1.1–2.5 are a later addition. 7: The great work, Deut 11.2–7. 8: Servant of the Lord, showing continuity with Moses (Deut 34.5). One hundred ten years, the age at which Joseph, the Ephraimite patriarch, died (Gen 50.22,26). 9: Timnath‐heres, Timnath‐serah in Josh 24.30.

2.11–23: The formula of the test of Israel’s faith. The first appearance of the formula (vv. 11–19) that frames the central section (3.7–11; 3.12,15,30; 4.1–3,23; 5.31; 6.1,6; 8.28; 10.6–7,10; 11.33; 13.1): Israel sins, angering the Lord who allows a foreign people to dominate them, they pray for mercy, the Lord raises up a “judge” to deliver them, and the land has rest. 11: Baals, the plural does not refer to specifically to the male Canaanite storm‐god, but to foreign gods in general. 13: Astartes, Astarte, Mesopotamian Ishtar, was a goddess of fertility and warfare different from Canaanite Asherah (see 3.7), a distinction irrelevant to the Israelite narrator; here the term is generic for female deities. 14: Plunderers, Heb “shosim”; Egyptian records from the Late Bronze Age refer to roving gangs of highwaymen known as the “Shasu.” 16: Judges, individuals who brought “justice,” that is, rectified a societal imbalance through the settlement of disputes (Deborah, 4.4–5), military leadership (Gideon, chs 6–8), assassination (Ehud, 3.18–30), or general destructive mayhem (Samson, chs 14–16); see further Introduction. 19: Relapse and behave worse: the book has a plunging arc; with each repetition of the cyclical formula Israel is worse off.

3.1–6: List of the peoples who will test Israel. A late addition, justifying Israel’s incomplete conquest of Canaan. 3: Five lords of the Philistines, 16.5; etc. Sidonians, from coastal Lebanon. Hivvites, probably Hittites; see 1.26n. 5: For an identical list of six non‐Israelite groups, see Ex 3.8; Deut 20.17. Other contexts have lists of varying lengths, including seven nations (adding Girgashites) in Deut 7.1 and elsewhere.

3.7–8.28: The deliverers. The tales about judges, also called “deliverers” (2.18; 3.9,15,31; 6.14; 8.22) begin triumphantly with stories about Othniel (3.7–11), Ehud (3.12–30), Deborah/Barak (4.1–5.31), and Gideon (6.1–8.28), held together by a common formula (2.11–23n.).

3.7–11: Othniel. This first story, favoring a Judean judge, closely adheres to the paradigm in 2.11–19. 7: Baals and Asherahs, see 2.13n. 8: Cushan‐rishathaim, lit., the “Double‐trouble Nubian.” Aram‐naharaim, in northern Syria, rhymes with Cushan‐rishathaim. 9: Othniel, son of Kenaz, Caleb’s younger brother, 1.13–15. 10: The spirit (lit., “wind, breath”) of the Lord also inspires Gideon (6.34), Jephthah (11.29), Samson (13.25; 14.6,19; 15.14), Saul (1 Sam 10.10; 11.6), and David (1 Sam 16.13).

3.12–30: Ehud. A left‐handed Benjaminite warrior undertakes a solo mission to the fortress of the Moabite king occupying Jericho, assassinates him, and escapes to safety. Ehud crosses threshold after threshold—the sculptured stones outside Jericho (vv. 19,26), the royal apartment (“cool roof chamber,” vv. 20,23–25), in and out of locked doors (v. 23,25)—and in the central chamber of this labyrinth slays Eglon (“Baby Bull”). 12: The Israelites again did what was evil, the initial element of the formula (2.11–23n.); the other features follow in vv. 15,30. Moab, Israel’s neighbor east of the Jordan (see v. 28). 13: Ammonites, from east of the Jordan north of Moab. Amalekites, 1.16n. City of palms, 1.16n. 15: Ehud means “Where Is the Power (other than with God)?” praising the deity through a rhetorical question. Benjaminite, a left‐handed man, a playful phrase; Benjamin means “Son of the Right Hand (the South)”; left‐handed, lit., “disabled in the right hand”; see also 20.16n. Tribute, Ehud delivers the tax‐like tribute to the occupiers; the Heb also means “offering” or “sacrifice,” hinting at Eglon’s fate. 16: Cubit (Heb “gomed”), an imprecise translation. An “ammah” or “cubit” marks the distance from elbow to fingertips, a “gomed” from elbow to wrist. Thus Ehud’s sword, shorter than normal, was more easily concealed. On his right thigh, Ehud will draw, unexpectedly, with his left hand (v. 21). 17: A very fat man, robustly stout, as in Gen 41.4; Dan 1.15. 19: Sculptured stones near Gilgal, likely referring to the stones erected according to Josh 4.8–9,20 after Israel crossed the Jordan. A secret message, for King Eglon’s ears only, causing the others to leave so Ehud can be alone to kill Eglon. 20: Cool roof chamber, the innermost area of the palace. A message from God … so he rose from his seat, Eglon’s reverent gesture makes him an easy target. 22: Dirt, excrement (see vv. 24–25). 23: Vestibule, meaning uncertain; perhaps “privy hole.” 24: Relieving himself, lit., “covering his feet,” referring to one’s robe fanning out when squatting to defecate. 26: Seirah, location unknown. 28: The fords of the Jordan, 7.24; 12.5. 29: Ten thousand, see 1.4n.

3.31: Shamgar. A foreign mercenary who aided Israel, also mentioned in 5.6. Shamgar is a Hurrian name; Anath is the name of a Canaanite warrior goddess. Oxgoad, a wooden pole with a nail on the end, a cattle prod (see 4.21n.).

4.1–5.31: Deborah and Barak. The story featuring Deborah, the only female judge in the book, about a miraculous victory of Israelite forces under the command of Barak (see 1 Sam 12.11; Heb 11.32) over the Canaanites led by Sisera is recounted in prose (4.1–24) and poetry (5.1–31). For a similar juxtaposition of prose and poetic accounts of the same event, see Ex 14–15. Here, female characters play the major roles in both the prose and poetic accounts.

4.1–24: Barak and the two women. Commissioned by Deborah, the warrior Barak wins the battle over the Canaanites, but because of his initial reluctance (v. 8), is denied the supreme martial honor, killing the enemy leader. Deborah told Barak that Sisera would fall to a woman (v. 9), whom we assume will be Deborah herself. As it turns out, a second woman, Jael, ends up besting both men “she comes out to meet” (vv. 18,22), stealing life from Sisera and “glory” (v. 9) from Barak. 4.1–3: Elements of the formula (see 2.11–23n.) frame the beginning and end (5.31) of the section; see 2.11–23n. 2: The Lord sold them, as if they were slaves. Jabin, Josh 11.1–11. Hazor, a major town in northern Galilee. Harosheth‐ha‐goiim, location unknown. 5: Deborah, a prophetess: For other female prophets, see Ex 15.20; 2 Kings 22.14; Neh 6.14; perhaps Isa 8.3. Deborah means “Bee” or “Wasp.” The palm of Deborah, for other sacred trees, see 6.11,19; 9.6; Gen 12.6; 35.4; Josh 24.26. Came up to her for judgment, Deborah is the only leader in Judges actually depicted as functioning as a “judge” to settle disputes (see Ex 18.13–16). 6: Barak means “Lightning Bolt.” Kedesh, ca. 8 mi (13 km) north of Hazor. Mount Tabor, north of the Jezreel Valley. Ten thousand, see 1.4n. 7: Wadi Kishon, a valley not far from Taanach and Megiddo (see 5.19). 10: Naphtali and Zebulun, in the poetic account, additional tribes are named as participants (see 5.14–15), though there too Zebulun and Naphtali are singled out (5.18). 11: Kenite, Hobab, see 1.16n. 15: Panic, see 7.21–22n. 17: Jael means “Ibex.” Peace between Jabin and the clan of Heber, Sisera assumed he was safe in a Kenite encampment because of a prior treaty. Jael breaks this treaty in service of another, the ancient association between Israel and the Kenites (see 1.16). 19: Sisera asks for water, Jael gives him milk and the cover of a blanket, like a mother. 21: Tent peg, hammer, Jael uses the tools of seminomads to kill the charioteer. For other unconventional or inferior weapons, see 3.31; 7.16; 15.15; 1 Sam 17.38–51; 2 Sam 23.21; and for the theme, see Judg 5.8. Went softly, hints of seduction, as in 5.27; cf. Ruth 3.7. 23: The victory is ultimately attributed not to humans, but to God.

5.1–31: The Song of Deborah. This ballad is one of the oldest extant pieces of Hebrew writing; it is difficult in many places. As a literary specimen it has more in common with the Late Bronze Age Syrian mythic poetry than with Hebrew poetry from the Iron Age. With arresting imagery, it narrates a battle between the Israelite militia led by Barak and the Canaanite forces under the command of Sisera (unlike 4.2, Jabin, king of Hazor, is not mentioned). According to the poem, it was a cloudburst (vv. 4–5,20–21) that providentially mired the Canaanite chariotry (see 1.19n.; 4.3) in a suddenly sodden Wadi Kishon. The ballad includes a third female character, Sisera’s mother, in addition to Deborah and Jael.

5.2–9: The first section is framed by a refrain (“Bless the Lord,” vv. 2,9) and emphasizes Israel’s vulnerability and the power of its God. 2: When locks were long, nazirite warriors such as Samson (see 13.4–5n.) had uncut hair. 4–5: A thunderstorm approaching from the south is interpreted as the marching forth of the Lord from Sinai to defend Israel (Ex 15.6–8; Deut 33.2,26–27; 2 Sam 22.8–16; Ps 68.7–9). 6: Shamgar, see 3.31n. 7: Text and meaning uncertain; read, “The peasantry had ceased … until you arose, O Deborah.” 8: New gods were chosen, see 2.11–13; Deut 32.17. Was shield or spear to be seen, see 1 Sam 13.22. Then is repeated five times (vv. 8,11,13,19,22), each time charting the next stage of the battle.

5.10–13: The second section arranges the combatants for a battle between the underdog “people of the Lord … against the mighty” Canaanites. 10: Donkeys, a status symbol (10.4).

5.14–18: The tribes from and bordering the Samarian highlands join the battle. Reuben and Gilead (in Transjordan), Asher and Dan (on the coast) do not. Judah is not mentioned. For other poetic lists of tribes, see Gen 49.2–27; Deut 33.2–29. 14: Machir, firstborn son of Manasseh (Josh 17.1). 17: Dan, why did he abide in ships, unclear. The tribe of Dan was located in the Judean lowlands (1.34; 13.2,25; 18.2) before migrating to northeast (18.27–29); neither location is on the Mediterranean coast.

5.19–22: The battle itself, impressionistically depicted.

5.23–27: A section with cursing and blessing the non‐Israelites involved features folk artistry in its terse, urgent description of Jael’s killing of Sisera. 23: Meroz, appearing only here; location unknown. 24–27: Sisera’s death is described in slow motion and, possibly, in sexual terms (“feet” is a frequent euphemism for genitals).

5.28–31: Though Canaanite women are depicted as callous about the rape and looting by their men, the image of Sisera’s mother’s anguished waiting for a son who will never return is so finely drawn that she is humanized. 30: For a similar projection of an army’s desire for plunder, see Ex 15.9; Ps 68.12; Isa 9.3. Girl, lit., “uterus,” an objectifying use of an anatomical term. A girl or two, women taken as sexual slaves (see Deut 21.10–11; cf. Judg 21.12–14,20–23).

6.1–8.28: Gideon. Gideon and his warriors rescue Israel from seasonal attacks by Midianites and their allies. Gideon purifies Israel territory from the internal threat of assimilation to Canaanite religion before removing an external threat by driving out invaders from the east (6.1–8.3), and then leads a war party across the Jordan on a reprisal raid (8.4–21); traditions about two different heroes may be combined here (see 6.32n.). A final section about Gideon’s legacy (8.22–28) blurs his image: although he made an ephod that became an occasion for idolatry (8.27), he also delivered “rest” to the land (8.28).

6.1–8.3: Gideon and the wine presses. The longest story about Gideon is bracketed by two wine presses. The first (6.11), where Gideon is hiding wheat from invaders, symbolizes Israel’s marginality; the second (7.25) is the site where the Midianite leaders are executed, symbolizing the reversal of fortunes.

6.1–10: Midianite raids. Raids by seminomadic Midianites from east of the Jordan at the time of the grain harvests drive Israelite farmers into hiding. 1–6: Note the elements of the formula (2.11–23n.). 2: Hiding places, cf. 1 Sam 13.5–7. 3: Amalekites, see 1.16n. People of the east, Isa 11.14; Ezek 25.4. 7–10: These verses, missing in a Dead Sea Scroll manuscript of this chapter (4Q49), may be a later addition. 7: Cried to the Lord, usually a deliverer emerges following this element of the formula, but that is delayed here and for the only time in Judges a prophet appears. 8–9: These verses may be copied from 1 Sam 10.18.

6.11–24: Gideon’s commissioning. As with Moses’s call narrative in Ex 3–4, there is the charge (v. 14), the recipient’s reluctance (v. 15) followed by divine reassurance (v. 16), a theophany (v. 22), and the establishment of a shrine (v. 24). 11: Angel of the Lord, for other angels, see 2.1–4; 5.23; 13.3–21. This angel appears at the portal of a sacred tree (see 2.4n.; 4.5n.). Ophrah, location unknown, but not Ophrah in Benjamin, farther to the south. Abiezrites, a subdivision of the tribe of Manasseh (Num 26.30; Josh 17.2). Belonged to Joash, the sacred tree belonged to Gideon’s father, and family members functioned as priests (see also 6.25). For another familyoperated shrine, see 17.1–5. Gideon means “Hacker,” a suitable name for a hero who demolishes a Canaanite shrine (vv. 25,30). 12: Mighty warrior, a warlord with weapons and access to a militia; also used of Jephthah (11.1), and Kish, Saul’s father (1 Sam 9.1). 15: As in other call narratives, Gideon protests that he is inadequate, like Moses (Ex 3.11) and Jeremiah (Jer 1.6). My clan is weakest, could mean numerically smallest, but Gideon’s protest of inadequacy could also be rhetorical posturing, for Gideon was hardly without resources (6.25,27); cf. Saul’s resistance to Samuel’s call in 1 Sam 9.21. Least in my family, youngest. For Gideon’s brothers, see 8.18–19; 9.2. 16: I will be with you, perhaps borrowed from Ex 3.12, where it functions as an etymology for the name Yahweh. 17: Show me a sign, Gideon, an insecure warrior who requires oracular reassurance (6.36–40), eventually acquires his own divinatory device (8.24–27). 19–23: Gideon assumes the visitor is human and prepares a meal; for a similar scene, see 13.15–23. 19: Ephah, ca. 21 qts (23 L). 20–21: The angel transforms the meal into a sacrifice. 21: The angel vanished without eating; angels do not customarily eat (13.16), but there are exceptions (Gen 18.8; 19.3). 22: Help me, the Heb word indicates a terrified cry (“Alas,” 11.35); Gideon is afraid that this direct encounter will kill him. Face to face, 13.22; Gen 16.13; 32.30; Ex 20.19; 33.20; Isa 6.5. 24: The altar at Ophrah, the foundation story for a shrine at Ophrah associated with Gideon’s legend.

6.25–32: Gideon’s ritual preparations for warfare. Before Gideon can proceed into battle with the help of the Lord, a God jealous of competing worship (Ex 20.3–5), he must destroy the shrine to Baal. 25: The altar of Baal and the sacred pole were symbols, respectively, of the chief Canaanite male and female deities, Baal and Asherah, both associated with fertility. Baal received his offerings in a palacelike stone temple, symbolic of his mythological home on a mountain. The focal points for devotion to Asherah were sacred wooden poles, symbolic of trees. 27: Gideon had reason to be afraid of his family; they benefited economically and socially from stewardship of the shrine he was hacking to pieces. 32: Gideon was called Jerubbaal: the explanation for Gideon’s new name is confusing. “Jerubbaal” means “May Baal contend for (protect) him,” the opposite of the explanation given here. Furthermore, the final clause, “because he pulled down his altar,” alludes to Gideon’s name; see 6.11n., where the same verb refers to the destruction of non‐Israelite shrines. Possibly stories about two separate characters, Gideon and Jerubbaal, have been blended together. Both names, Jerubbaal (1 Sam 12.11) and Gideon (Heb 11.32), are used elsewhere.

6.33–35: Gideon musters his troops. Gideon sounds his trumpet and summons warriors from the militias of the Samarian highlands and Jezreel Valley, but omits Ephraim from the initial muster (see 8.1). 34: Spirit of the Lord took possession, lit., “clothed itself with,” an image reused in Lk 24.49; see also 3.10n. Trumpet, a ram’s horn (Heb “shofar”), employed again in 7.16–23.

6.36–40: Gideon tests God twice with the fleece. Gideon asks for two additional signs of divine support. Throughout 6.36–40, “God” (Heb “˒Elohim”) is used for the deity rather than “the Lord” (YHWH), typically found in the rest of the story; this suggests that this version of the episode combined earlier stories.

7.1–8: The Lord tests Gideon twice with reduction of troops. Just as Gideon had tested God twice, the deity now makes Gideon’s men submit to two tests. In the end, an army of 30,000 (7.3) is reduced to 300 (7.6), showing that it is ultimately God, not a large army, that provides victory. 1: Jerubbaal (that is, Gideon), see 6.32n. 3: Fearful, a word frequently used of Gideon and his men (6.22,27; 7.10). Thousand, see 1.4n. 5–7: Those who lap, the men who alertly crouched, lapping water with cupped hands rather than those who bent to their knees, were deemed more suitable.

7.9–14: Gideon’s nighttime revelations. 10: Purah, probably Gideon’s weapon bearer (see 9.54; 1 Sam 14.1; 31.4). 13: Dreams in antiquity were often thought to be a form of prophecy. A barley cake, symbol of settled agriculturalists, crushes the Midianite tents, symbolic of nomadic transhumanists. 14: God, the Midianite uses the general word for deity (Heb “ʾElohim”).

7.15–23: The midnight raid on the Midianite camp. Gideon and his outnumbered underdogs wielding trumpets and torches inside jars triumph over the enemy, using sound and light to panic Midian. This nearimpossible juggling feat is further evidence of the blending of two sources. The use of these ritual objects makes the account all the more miraculous: Gideon and his men defeat Midian without raising conventional weapons (for Israel’s inferior weapons, see 5.8; 15.16; 1 Sam 13.12). 19: Middle watch, near midnight, just as the sentry shift occurred. 21–22: Every man stood in his place, initially Gideon’s men did not fight at all; the confused Midianites, every man’s sword against his fellow, kill each other (1 Sam 14.20).

7.24–8.3: The execution of enemy leaders. The Ephraimites are finally mustered to secure the fords and capture Midianites attempting to cross the Jordan. The Ephraimites are upset because they missed an opportunity to loot the Midianite camp. 24: The fords of the Jordan, 3.28; 12.5. 25: Oreb means “Raven” and Zeeb means “Wolf.” The wine press (see 6.1–8.3.) provides a fitting location for the end of the episode. This scene at the rock of Oreb lived on in Israelite tradition (Ps 83.9–12; Isa 9.4; 10.26). 25: Execution, often involving decapitation, of enemy leaders following warfare was common (8.21; Josh 8.29; 10.22–26; 1 Sam 17.51). 8.1: The Ephraimites also objected when Jephthah did not include them in a battle, depriving them of plunder and honors (12.1–6). 2–3: Gideon is able to avoid violence through the skillful use of language, just as his father had in Ophrah (6.31).

8.4–21: Gideon and the three towns. Gideon fights on, crossing the Jordan to redeem his family honor by hunting down the men who had killed his blood‐brothers. Gideon acquires and settles new scores along the way with towns that refuse to feed his three hundred men. 4: Three hundred, see 7.8,16. 5: Succoth, probably Tell Deir Alla in the eastern Jordan valley. Zebah means “(Sacrificial) Victim”; Zalmunna means “No‐Shelter.” 6: The hands, as battlefield trophies; for other body parts taken by warriors, see 1.6–7;1 Sam 18.27; 31.8–9. 8: Penuel, east of Succoth. 10: Karkor, location unknown. One hundred twenty thousand, see 1.4n. 10–11: The numbers are exaggerated. 12: Panic, 4.15; 7.21–22n. 16: Trampled, another reversal of fortune. The Midianite invasion forced Gideon to thresh wheat in a wine press (6.11), now he pays them back by threshing the elders of Succoth. 17: Broke down, the same Heb word translated “pull down” in 6.30. 18: Tabor, if this is the same as in 4.6, no battle with Midianites there is mentioned elsewhere. 21: 7.25n. Crescents were probably chains of amulets and bangles.

8.22–28: Gideon and the ephod. The Gideon narrative ends where it began in Ophrah (6.11), as Gideon refuses the offer of kingship and furnishes his family shrine with a divinatory device. The story of Gideon/Jerubbaal ends ambiguously: he delivered Israel from the Midianites and piously refused kingship, but his legacy is tainted by the stain of idolatry. His refusal of kingship hints ahead to the following episode, where his son Abimelech makes himself king. 23: The Lord will rule over you, cf. 1 Sam 8.7; 10.19; 12.12. 24–27: Gideon, who often sought and relied on divinatory guidance (6.36–40; 7.9–15), makes an ephod for his shrine. 24: Ishmaelites are also identified as Midianites in Gen 37.25–36. 27: Ephod, elsewhere a gilded vest worn by priests containing divinatory objects (Ex 28.6–30; 39.2–7; 1 Sam 2.18), here functioning as a ritual object; for another ephod in Judges, see 17.5. The narrator does not explain how this particular ephod became the object of inappropriate devotion. 28: The land had rest, for the final time in Judges.

8.29–16.31: The “empty men.” The accounts of several of the judges portray morally ambiguous (Gideon, Jephthah, Samson) or corrupt (Abimelech) protagonists. The term “empty men” is used in the narratives of Abimelech (NRSV “worthless fellows,” 9.4) and Jephthah (“outlaws,” 11.3) to describe bandits and gangsters alienated from their clans. The narrator in 2.19 had traced a descending moral trajectory for the period, and beginning with Gideon at the end of his life, the judges themselves are portrayed as successively worse. Though some elements of the formula (see 2.11–23n.) remain (8.33; 10.6–7,10; 11.33; 13.1) to editorially connect these characters with the heroes of chs 3–8 and the paradigm in 2.11–19, the land never again has rest.

8.29–9.57: Abimelech. Through militarism and marriage, Gideon had extended his power base from Ophrah to neighboring Shechem, the major town in the region. Gideon’s son Abimelech seeks the kingship his father refused by conspiring with his maternal kin in Shechem to kill his brothers and inherit his father’s regional chieftainship. Gaal, a warlord with ties to neither Shechem nor Ophrah, persuades the Shechemites to turn against Abimelech who is, finally, not one of them. In this power grab, Abimelech’s fratricide sets in motion a chain reaction of treachery among a host of the mutually faithless and ruthless. The justice‐making (“judging”) function in this story is triggered by Jotham’s curse that unleashes “an evil spirit” from God (9.23) which plays each side off against the other. The story begins and ends with events featuring two stones (see 9.5,53).

8.29–35: Gideon’s death and its aftermath. 29: Jerubbaal, see 6.32n. 31: Concubine, a secondary wife in a polygamous family. Abimelech means “My (divine) father is king.” Shechem, a major town in Israelite history (Gen 34; Josh 24; 1 Kings 12.25). 32: Died at a good old age, said also of Abraham (Gen 15.15; 25.8) and David (1 Chr 29.28). Baal‐berith means “lord of the covenant”; his temple in Shechem (9.4,46) was a place where pacts were solemnized. Ironically, in this story every party will prove unfaithful to its alliances. 35: Loyalty, Heb “ḥesed,” faithfulness to covenants.

9.1–6: Abimelech becomes king. 1: Abimelech went to Shechem, the home of his mother, because in Ophrah among the other sons of Jerubbaal/Gideon, he had secondary status. 4: A temple could function as a treasury; see 1 Kings 7.51; 15.18; 2 Kings 18.15; 20.17. 4: Worthless and reckless fellows, see 8.29–16.31. 5: Seventy men … but one survived, cf. 2 Kings 10.1–7. in which Jehu kills Ahab’s seventy sons. Abimelech kills on a butchering stone in order to dispose of the blood before it soaks into the ground (see Gen 4.10), seeking to avoid divine retribution. 6: Beth‐millo, a district in Shechem. The oak of the pillar at Shechem, 9.6; Gen 12.6; 35.4; Josh 24.26.

9.7–21: Jotham’s fable and curse. At safe remove from Abimelech’s coronation in neighboring Shechem, the surviving brother Jotham stands on overlooking Mount Gerizim to offer a fable, utter a curse, and begin to restore order to the social chaos unleashed by Abimelech’s killing his other brothers. 7: Mount Gerizim, one of two sacred mountains flanking Shechem; the other is Mount Ebal. 10: Fig trees offered shade and protection; see 1 Kings 4.25; Mic 4.4. 14: The bramble offered no fruit, shade, or timber. For a similar plant fable, see 2 Kings 14.8–10. 21: Beer (“well”), location unknown.

9.22–57: The end of Abimelech’s rule. Jotham’s curse of Abimelech and the Shechemites comes to pass as these parties to a murderous conspiracy take turns mutually incinerating (note the fire imagery of the curse) each other. 22: Ruled over, a different Heb word than that meaning “reigned,” implying that Abimelech was not a legitimate king. 23: God sent an evil spirit, 1 Sam 16.14; 18.10; 19.9; 1 Kings 22.19–23. 25: For bandits near Shechem, see Hos 6.9. 27: For another vintage festival, see 21.19–21. 28: Who is Abimelech and who are we of Shechem? To Shechemites, Abimelech was a half‐breed outsider. Zebul was a powerful Shechemite (see v. 30) who had allied himself with Abimelech. The men of Hamor were the traditional Shechemite ruling class (Gen 33.19; 34.20). 37: Tabbur‐erez, lit., “navel of the earth.” From the Shechemite (and later Samaritan) perspective, Shechem was the symbolic center of the world; for Judahites, it was Jerusalem (Ezek 5.5; 38.12). Elonmeonenim, lit., “the oak of the diviners”; see v. 6n. 42–45: For a similar ambush, see Josh 8.3–23. 45: Razed the city, like Gideon at Penuel (8.9,17). Sowed with salt, so that it could no longer produce agriculture; see Deut 29.23; Ps 107.34; Jer 17.6. 46: The Tower of Shechem, either a fortified section of the city or a separate town. 48: Zalmon, perhaps another name for Ebal (see v. 7n.) 50: Thebez, ca. 9 mi (15 km) north‐northeast of Shechem. 54: Young man who carried his armor, cf. 7.11; 1 Sam 14.6; 16.21; and 31.4–6, where Saul makes a similar request of his attendant. So people will not say …, “A woman killed him,” a sign of great humiliation; but they did (2 Sam 11.21).

10.1–5: The “minor judges.” This list continues in 12.8–15 following the Jephthah narrative (10.6–12.7). Scholars call these figures “minor judges” since only brief details—their hometown, length of judgeship, and burial place (perhaps so they could be honored by pilgrims)—are noted. The addition of these sections allows the book to have a total of twelve judges (Othniel, Ehud, Shamgar, Deborah, Gideon, Tola, Jair, Jephthah, Ibzan, Elon, Abdon, and Samson). 3–4: For alternative traditions about Jair, see Num 32.41; Deut 3.14. 4: Donkeys, see 5.10n.

10.6–12.7: Jephthah. Jephthah, rejected by his society, is called back to rescue Gilead when they need his desperado skills against the Ammonites. The account of Jephthah includes elements of the formula (see 2.11–23n.; 10.6–10; 11.29), but lacks its resolution: the land does not have rest.

10.6–18: Introduction to the Jephthah cycle. 7: Mention of the Philistines, who appear in the subsequent Samson story, suggests that this section introduces not only the Jephthah story but all of chs 10–16. 8: Gilead, Israelite settlement, including the tribe of Gad and the half‐tribe of Manasseh, located in northwest Transjordan. 11: The Egyptians, events from Exodus. Amorites, see Num 21. Conflicts with the Sidonians from Phoenicia and Maonites (perhaps an alternate term for Midianites) are not attested in the previous biblical books. Amalekites, see 1.16n. 14: Gods you have chosen, cf. Josh 24.14–15. 15: The only mention of Israel repenting in the entire book. 16: He could no longer bear, became choked‐up; “his throat tightened.” 17: Mizpah, a frequent place‐name, which means “observation post” and which will become Jephthah’s headquarters (11.11); this “Mizpah” is in Transjordan.

11.1–11: Jephthah and the elders of Gilead. 1: Jephthah, a name meaning “he opens,” referring to “God opening the womb” (Gen 29.31; 30.22). For later affirmations of Jephthah, see 1 Sam 12.11; Heb 11.32–34. A mighty warrior, see 6.12n. 3: Tob, in northeast Gilead. The name’s meaning (“good”) contrasts with the bands that affiliate with Jephthah. Outlaws, see 8.29–16.31. 4–11: The elders of Gilead offer Jephthah provisional leadership as “commander,” but he insists on being “head,” chief (though not king), even after the warfare ends; cf. 10.18. 11: Before the Lord, at a temple or altar.

11.12–28: Jephthah’s negotiation with the Ammonites is a defense of the Israelite claim to its territory in Transjordan and serves as a justification for hostilities. His speech refers to an earlier Israelite conquest of the Ammonite king Sihon and his capital Heshbon recounted in Num 21.21–31; Deut 2.26–35. 17: Kadesh (‐barnea), a desert oasis in northern Sinai (Num 13.25; 20.1). 24: Chemosh, the high god of the Moabites, not of the Ammonites, whose god was Milkom (1 Kings 11.33). 25: Balak, king of Moab (Num 22–25). 27: Let the Lord … decide, cf. 1 Sam 24.15; 2 Sam 10.12.

11.29–40: Jephthah’s vow. 29: The spirit of the Lord, see 3.10n. 31: Whoever could refer either to an animal or a person; for human sacrifice in time of war, see 2 Kings 3.26–27. 34: Timbrels (castanets) and dancing, part of the homecoming rite in which women met returning warriors (see, e.g., 1 Sam 18.6–7). His only child, cf. Gen 22.2. 35: Tore his clothes, a gesture of extreme grief (Gen 37.29; 2 Sam 13.19,31; Job 1.20). Alas, see 6.25n. I cannot take back my vow, cf. Deut 23.21–23; Eccl 5.4–5. 36: My father, cf. Gen 22.7. 37: Bewail my virginity, because of the deprivation of potential motherhood. 39–40: An Israelite custom, an etiology of a young women’s rite of passage among the Israelite tribes east of the Jordan.

12.1–7: Jephthah and the shibboleth. 1: The men of Ephraim are again disgruntled with their secondary role in a battle (8.1–3), though this time, reflecting the devolution within the book of Judges, their complaint has fatal consequences. Zaphon, a village in Transjordan (Josh 13.27). Burn your house, for burning people alive in houses, see 9.49; 14.15. 4–5: You are fugitives, this insult leveled by the Ephraimites against the Gileadites who resided across the Jordan from the Israelite is ironically reversed in the next verse. 5–6: Physically indistinguishable from each other, the Gileadites used a dialectal difference in the pronunciation of sibilants (s‐sounds) to identify Ephraimites. Shibboleth, either “stalk of grain” or “stream.” The fords of the Jordan, see 3.28; 7.24. Fortytwo thousand, see 1.4n.

12.8–15: The “minor judges,” continuing the list of 10.1–5. 8: Bethlehem in Zebulun (Josh 19.15), not Bethlehem in Judah. 13: Pirathon, ca. 8 mi (13 km) east of Shechem. 14: Donkeys, 5.10n.

13.1–16.31: Samson. The solitary fighter Samson, enlisted from birth and filled with the Lord’s spirit, begins to deliver Israel from the Philistines who control the coastal plain. After an introduction centered on Samson’s mother, the account is structured around three affairs with foreign women; behind the scenes the Lord has his purposes (14.4).

13.1–25: Samson’s birth. This is similar to other birth accounts in which a spouse in a childless marriage is visited by an angel (Gen 18.10; Mt 1.20; Lk 1.13,26–31), priest (1 Sam 1.17), or prophet (2 Kings 4.16) who announces that the woman will conceive a child with a special mission (1 Sam 1.11; Mt 1.21; Lk 1.14–17,32–33). 1: Elements of the formula (see 2.11–23n.) recur for the last time. 2: Zorah, ca. 16 mi (25 km) west of Jerusalem. His wife is unnamed, usually a marker of marginality, but not here (see vv. 13–14). 4–5: Nazirite means “consecrated” and involved a temporary vow to abstain from drinking alcoholic beverages, cutting one’s hair, and having contact with the dead (Num 6.1–21). Its origins may have been among warrior groups (see 5.2n.). The combination of a special birth to a barren mother and the nazirite motif is also found in the story of Samuel (1 Sam 1.9–22). 4: Strong drink, fortified wine or beer. 5: Begin to deliver Israel from the Philistines, Samson will begin a conflict that will later involve Saul and David. 9: Though Manoah prays that the man of God visit again so he can hear the instructions, the angel once again comes to her. 15–22: As in the Gideon story (6.19–22), Manoah offers a meal to the mysterious guest, only to see the banquet transformed into a sacrifice, and the visitor revealed as divine. 16: I will not eat, 6.21n. 18–19: Note the wordplay between wonderful (v. 18) and works wonders (v. 19). 22: We shall surely die …, 6.22–23; Gen 32.30; Ex 33.20–23. 24: Samson’s name (Heb “Shimshon”) is derived from the word for “sun” (“shemesh”); it may be a mythological allusion, or simply mean “sunny.” The boy grew, and the Lord blessed him, cf. 1 Sam 2.26; Lk 1.80; 2.40,52. 25: The Spirit of the Lord, also 14.6,19; 15.14; see 3.10n. Stir, lit., “trouble,” also used to describe insomnia (Gen 41.8; Ps 77.4; Dan 2.1,3); the spirit makes Samson restless. Mahaneh‐dan and Eshtaol, unknown locations.

14.1–16.31: Samson and the three women. The account of Samson’s attacks on Philistia is structured around encounters with three women, the Timnite (14.1–15.20), the prostitute (16.1–3), and Delilah (16.4–31).

14.1–15.20: Samson and the woman from Timnah. 14.1–2: Went down … came up, verbs describing descent and ascent are common throughout the story as Samson crisscrosses the boundary between Dan in the hills and Philistia on the coast. 1: Timnah, ca. 18 mi (30 km) west of Jerusalem. He saw: sight is a key motif in the story. Samson sees foreign women (14.1; 16.1), and the Timnite “pleases” him (lit., “is right in his eyes,” vv. 3,7; cf. 17.6; 21.25). Samson is figuratively blinded by love with Delilah (16.4), and ultimately, literally, by his Philistine captors (16.21). 3: Uncircumcised, unlike the Israelites and most of their neighbors, the Philistines did not practice circumcision. 4: The subject of this sentence, he, could refer either to Samson or to the Lord (see 13.5) 6: Spirit … rushed on him, see 3.10n. He tore the lion apart … (that is, as a lion) might tear apart a kid, the lion gets a taste of its own medicine. For other fights with lions, see 1 Sam 17.34–37; 2 Sam 23.20. Though other Israelite heroes wield inferior weapons (see 4.21n.), Samson, the fiercest, fights barehanded. 8–9: Samson eats wild honey, enlists foxes to fight with him (15.4–5), and retreats to a cave (15.8), traits of wild men of folklore.

14.10–15.8: The riddle contest and its aftermath. Following Philistine custom, Samson hosts a wedding feast, during which he engages in (and loses) a riddle contest, and reveals a secret under pressure from a woman (cf. also 16.4–17), all serving as occasions for Samson’s mayhem (v. 19; 15.4–5,8). 14: Samson’s riddle, which could be interpreted as sexual innuendo, is actually based on the accident of the bees hiving in the lion carcass; only an eyewitness could solve it. 15: Since cleverness is of no help, the Philistines use coercion to solve Samson’s riddle. 16: Love, mentioned for the first time; see also 16.4,15. 18: The Philistines answer Samson’s riddle with their own, which Samson does not answer. Its solution is implied in the Delilah story: love is sweeter than honey and stronger than our lion‐slayer. Plowed with my heifer, sexual innuendo. 19: Ashkelon, a Philistine city ca. 25 mi (40 km) west‐southwest of Timnah. 15.4–5: Foxes, or jackals, were associated with agricultural and architectural ruin (Neh 4.3; Song 2.15; Lam 5.18; Ezek 13.4). 8: Cleft of a rock, a cave; 14.8–9n.

15.9–20: Samson at Lehi. The Philistines again coerce a party, here the Judahites, to betray Samson to them (see 14.15). Samson allows himself to be bound with ropes, which he bursts before wreaking more destruction in Philistia. 9: Lehi, meaning “jawbone, cheek” (see v. 15), location unknown. 13: Two new ropes, cf. 16.11–12. 19: En‐hakkore, “Spring of Calling,” because there Samson called on the Lord (v. 18). 20: A closing formula (cf. 12.7,9,11,14) at this point in the story (cf. 16.31) suggests that the Samson cycle may have originally ended here.

16.1–3: Samson and the prostitute of Gaza. In this unusually short episode, once again (15.1) Samson “sees” a woman. 1: Gaza, the southernmost of the Philistine cities, on the Mediterranean coast. He went into her, sexual intercourse (Gen 6.4; 16.4; Ezek 23.44). 3: Hebron, ca. 35 mi (56 km) from Gaza.

16.4–31: Samson and Delilah. Delilah solves the riddle of Samson’s strength. The narrative has a three‐four pattern, in which the fourth episode is climactic. 4: Fell in love, 14.1n.,18n. Sorek, a valley near Zorah and Timnah. Delilah means “(Flowing) locks.” 11: New ropes, see 15.13. 13–14: Weave … web … pin … loom, these details suggest that Delilah had a cottage textile industry, like Rahab (Josh 2.6,18) and the “capable woman” in Prov 31.18–19,22,24. 13: Seven locks, Samson wore his hair in dreadlocks, a style for warriors known from ancient Near Eastern art. 15: Delilah’s mention of love prefigures Samson’s capitulation. 17: Nazirite, see 13.4–5n. 21: Gouged out his eyes, cf. 1 Sam 11.2. 23: Dagon, a god of grain. 24–25: Entertain … performed, sexual innuendo. 30: Those he killed at his death, Samson fulfills his grim mission (see 13.5; 14.4). 31: Zorah and Eshtaol, Samson’s story ends where it began (13.25). Twenty years, see 15.20n.

17.1–21.25: The days before a king. The concluding section consists of two stories about religious and social chaos in an era summed up in the refrain “In those days there was no king in Israel” (17.6; 18.1; 19.1; 21.25). The focus is on the ritual and moral misdeeds of Dan and Benjamin, the sites of shrines that come to rival the Temple in Jerusalem.

17.1–18.31: Micah and the Danites. The first story is about the tainted origins of the artifacts and priesthood of the shrine at Dan.

17.1–13: Micah’s shrine and its idol. The religious anarchy of the premonarchical period is typified by this story about the contaminated roots of an idol eventually housed in the shrine at Dan (18.30).

17.1–13: Micah’s idol and his priests. 1–6: A woman’s silver is stolen, her guilty son cursed, and an idol, contrary to commandment (Ex 20.4), forged. 2: Eleven hundred pieces connects this story to the previous narrative (16.5). Though the silver is returned, the curse remains in force. 3: Idol of cast metal, a prohibited form of worship; see Ex 34.17; Deut 27.15. 5: For other family shrines, see 6.25; 8.27. Ephod, see 8.27n. Teraphim, probably ancestor figurines (Gen 31.19). Installed … his son as priest, cf. 2 Sam 8.18; only later were priestly functions restricted to the tribe of Levi. 7–13: The shrine acquires a Levite priest. 7: Levite, a member of the priestly tribe that had no territory of its own. 10: Father, an honorific title.

18.1–31: The migration of Dan. Dan migrates from the Judean hills (1.34) to the far north (see Josh 19.47), acquiring a priest and equipment for a shrine along the way. The previous story in Judges (chs 13–16) features Samson, also a Danite, another link between the two sections (see also 17.2n.; 18.2n.). 2: Zorah and Eshtaol, see 13.25; 16.31, another link with chs 13–16. 5: Inquire, see 1.1n. 7: Laish, to be renamed Dan (v. 29), was located in the extreme northeastern corner of Israel. Sidonians, residents of the Phoenician city‐state Sidon on the Lebanese coast north of Israel. Aram, Syria. 11: Six hundred men, cf. 1 Sam 30.9. 12: Kiriath‐jearim, ca. 8 mi (13 km) northwest of Jerusalem. Mahaneh‐dan, see 13.25. 21: The Danites depart from Micah’s compound, warriors in the rear, anticipating trouble. 28: Beth‐rehob, a district in southern Aram (2 Sam 10.6), or a small town near Dan. 30–31: The origins of the shrine at Dan (1 Kings 12.25–30). 30: Jonathan son of Gershom, son of Moses, Jonathan belonged to the third generation after the Exodus, yet by now scores of years had passed according to the chronology of Judges (see 3.11,30; 5.31; 8.28); this suggests that this episode is placed here for thematic rather than chronological reasons. Pious scribes seeking to protect the name of Moses from association with an illicit shrine connected to his grandson inserted the Heb letter “nun” (“n”) above his name in the Hebrew text, turning “Mosheh” (Moses) into “Menashsheh” (Manasseh; see textual note a). Captivity, when the Galileans were exiled by Assyria, 732 bce (2 Kings 15.29). 31: Shiloh, the main religious center in the era of Samuel (1 Sam 1–4), was destroyed by the Philistines over three centuries before the Assyrian invasion.

19.1–21.25: The Benjaminite war. This graphic and horrific account serves as a final statement about the era’s social and religious anarchy. Though unnamed and not yet born, the shadow of Saul, whose hometown (Gibeah) and tribe (Benjamin) initiate the chain reaction of atrocities, looms large. The trouble begins with Benjamin, but spreads throughout the north.

19.1–30: The outrage in Gibeah. This episode closely resembles the story of Sodom (Gen 19.1–29. 1: Concubine, 8.31n. 8: The typical biblical pattern is 3–4 (see 16.15n.); leaving on the fifth day suggests trouble. 10: Jerusalem, later to be David’s royal city; the only safe place in this pro‐Davidic story. 12: A city of foreigners (see 1.21n.): as it turns out, the Levite and his wife would have been safer among strangers than in Israelite Gibeah. 13: Ramah, Samuel’s birthplace (1 Sam 1.19). 22–26: Unlike the story of Sodom, here no angels come to the rescue. 22: A perverse lot, lit., “sons of Belial,” an idiom for “worthless” men (20.13; 1 Sam 2.12; 25.17,25; 1 Kings 21.10,13). 25: Seized, see v. 29n. 26–28: Whether the woman is alive or dead is not stated; cf. 20.5n. 29: Grasping, the same Heb verb translated “seize” in v. 25; it connotes rough handling. Twelve pieces, the woman’s body is dismembered by her husband, a piece to arouse each of the twelve tribes toward revenge against the men of Gibeah and to demonstrate the consequences should they not respond; this likely reflects the story of the dismemberment of a yoke of oxen by King Saul in 1 Sam 11.5–7.

20.1–48: The war against Benjamin. 1: Dan to Beersheba, the traditional northern and southern limits of Israel (see, e.g., 2 Sam 17.11). Mizpah, near Gibeah (Neh 3.7); a frequent site for convocations (1 Sam 7.5–12; 10.17–24). 2: Four hundred thousand, see 1.4n. 5: Until she died, the Levite denies any role in his wife’s death; cf. 19.26–28n. 12–17: The Israelite coalition seeks to avoid warfare if Benjamin delivers the culprits from Gibeah. When the Benjaminites refuse to hand them over, the war is on. 16: Left‐handed, like Ehud (3.15), also from Benjamin; in 1 Chr 12.2 Benjaminite warriors are ambidextrous. 18: Bethel, 2.1n; Gen 28.10–17. Inquired, 1.1n. Which of us shall go up first, 1.1n. These references to the initial episode form a frame around the book. Judah is never mentioned in the battle account, but its selection to lead is consistent with its first rank position in ch 1, and reflects the importance of David, who is a Judahite. 19–35: The coalition defeats Benjamin, but only on the third try. 19–22: No explanation is given for the loss on the first day. 23: Wept before the Lord, 2.4–5; 21.2. Inquired, cf. 1 Kings 22.6. 24–28: Defeat on the second day leads to even more intense ritual. 27: Ark of the covenant, a cedar chest containing sacred objects that served both as a focal point for ritual and was a visible symbol of invisible divine presence carried into battle. 28: Phineas son of Eleazar, son of Aaron (Num 25.7–13; Josh 22.30–33; 24.33), another member of the third generation after the Exodus (see 18.30n.). Eleazar also appears in Num 31, an account with many details similar to the events in the subsequent chapter (see 21.10n.,12n.). 29–34: For a similar tactic, drawing opponents into the open so that a company in hiding can attack an under‐defended town, see 9.42–45; Josh 8.1–24. 38: Cloud of smoke, cf. Josh 8.18–21. 45: Rock of Rimmon, location uncertain but near Gibeah. 48: The Israelites treat Gibeah like an apostate city, subjecting it to the ban (see 1.17n.).

21.1–24: The war against the daughters. The Israelite chiefs who had vowed during the hostilities that no Benjaminite would ever marry their daughters grow anxious about the state of the remaining six hundred warriors since the patriarchal family of twelve tribes must be preserved. At Jabesh‐gilead, which did not answer the tribal muster against Benjamin, four hundred women are abducted. To secure two hundred more, the elders of Israel, bound by oath not to give their daughters away, direct the Benjaminites to take their daughters by force.

21.1–14: Bride capture at Jabesh‐gilead. The Israelite coalition annihilates the village of Jabesh‐gilead, which did not participate in the war against Benjamin, in order to secure wives for the surviving Benjaminite warriors whose womenfolk the Israelites had previously annihilated. Some details in this story are reminiscent of Num 31.1–20. 2: At Bethel … wept bitterly, 20.23n. Bethel was the site of a weeping ritual at the beginning of Judges (2.1–5). 8: Jabesh‐gilead, in Transjordan, is a village associated positively with Saul (1 Sam 11.1–11; 31.11–13; 2 Sam 2.4–7). 10: Twelve thousand, Num 31.1–5. Women and the little ones, Num 31.9. 11: Devote to destruction, 1.17n. 12: Young virgins who had never slept with a man, Num 31.17–18. Shiloh, ca. 9 mi (5 km) north of Bethel, plays a central role in the following book of Samuel (e.g., 1 Sam 1.3).

21.15–24: Bride capture at Shiloh. The Israelite elders, in an action reminiscent of Jephthah (11.34–40), allow the young women of Shiloh to be captured in order to avoid breaking a vow. The motif of abducting women on a festival day is known from Greek and Roman literature. 19: The yearly festival at Shiloh, this agricultural festival is otherwise unknown; cf. 11.29–30. Lebonah, ca. 4 mi (6.5 km) west‐northwest of Shiloh. 21: The young women come out to dance, like Jephthah’s daughter (11.34). 22: A wife for each man, see 5.30n. 24: So the Israelites departed from there, in a book with a revolving pattern, Israel ends as it began (2.6).

21.25: Conclusion to the book of Judges. The final refrain leaves Israel in disarray, hinting at the necessity of establishing a monarchy, the theme of the following book of Samuel.

^a That is Basins of Water

^b Gk: Heb lacks Hobab

^c See 1 Sam 15.6: Heb people

^a OL Vg Compare Gk: Heb sides

^b That is Weepers

^a Heb he said

^b Heb his

^c With Tg Vg: Meaning of Heb uncertain

^d Meaning of Heb uncertain

^e Heb covering his feet

^a Heb from the Kain

^b Heb adds to the sword; compare verse 16

^a Or You who offer yourselves willingly among the people, bless

^b Meaning of Heb uncertain

^a Gk: Heb me

^b Cn: Heb From Ephraim their root

^c Gk: Heb in Amalek

^a Gk Compare Tg: Heb exclaimed

^a Heb Asherah

^a Heb Asherah

^b Heb he

^c Heb from

^a Cn: Heb home, and depart from Mount Gilead’”

^b Heb places the words putting their hands to their mouths after the word lapped in verse 6

^c Cn: Heb So the people took provisions in their hands

^a Another reading is Zeredah

^b Gk: Heb pursuing

^a With verse 7, Compare Gk: Heb he taught

^b Heb they

^a Cn: Meaning of Heb uncertain

^a Heb might come

^a Gk: Heb and he said

^b Cn See 9.41. Heb Tormah

^c Cn: Heb are besieging

^d That is Diviners’ Oak

^e Heb mouth

^f Vg and some Gk Mss: Heb companies that were

^a Heb lacks Did I not deliver you

^a Or Sea of Reeds

^a Cn: Heb go down

^a Gk OL, Syr H: Heb lacks who oppressed us

^b Meaning of Heb uncertain: Gk omits because . . . Manasseh

^c Gk: Heb in the towns of Gilead

^a That is one separated or one consecrated

^b Or the angel

^c Gk Vg: Heb and working

^d Heb wonders, while Manoah and his wife looked on

^a Cn: Heb my

^b Gk Syr: Heb seventh

^a Heb them

^b Gk Tg Vg: Heb lacks and

^a That is The Hill of the Jawbone

^b That is The Spring of the One who Called

^c Gk: Heb lacks were told

^d Compare Gk: in verses 13–14, Heb lacks and make it tight . . . into the web

^a That is one separated or one consecrated

^b Gk: Heb She began to torment him

^c Or so that I may be avenged upon the Philistines for one of my two eyes

^a The words but now I will return it to you are transposed from the end of verse 3 in Heb

^b Or Ephraim, continuing his journey

^c Heb living, and the Levite went

^a Cn Compare 18.10: Meaning of Heb uncertain

^b Meaning of Heb uncertain

^c Symmachus: Heb with anyone

^d That is Camp of Dan

^e Compare 17.4, 5; 18.14: Heb teraphim and the cast metal

^f Cn Compare verse 7: Heb with anyone

^a Another reading is son of Manasseh

^b Gk OL: Heb prostituted herself against

^c Gk: Heb she brought him to

^d Compare verse 7 and Gk: Heb they

^e Cn: Heb Linger

^f Gk: Heb lacks and drank

^a Gk Compare 19.29. Heb to the house of the Lord

^a Compare Gk: Heb 30And all who saw it said, “Such a thing has not happened or been seen

^b Gk: Heb lacks we will go up

^c Compare Gk: Meaning of Heb uncertain

^d Verses 22 and 23 are transposed

^a Gk Vg: Heb in the plain

^b This sentence is continued by verse 45.

^c Compare Vg and some Gk Mss: Heb cities

^d Compare Syr: Meaning of Heb uncertain

^e Gk: Heb Surrounding

^f Gk: Heb pursued them at their resting place