Glossary
A
Aaron the first high priest, brother of Moses and Levite (Ex 4.14); he is inaugurated in Ex chs 28–29. Although it is unclear how, or whether, Aaron was supposed to be the progenitor of later priests, he is regarded as the prototype. See Levite, Zadokite
Abaddon (Heb “place of destruction”), the realm of the dead (Job 26.6; Prov 15.11; Ps 88.10–12; Rev 9.11)
Abba (Aram. “father”), the word Jesus (Mk 14.36) and the early church (Rom 8.15) used to address God
accession the act of taking one’s place as a ruler
acropolis (Gk “height of the city”) the fortified upper area of a Greek city; “the Acropolis” refers to this area in Athens
acrostic a literary device in which the first letter of each line of poetry occurs according to a predetermined pattern. In the poetry of the Hebrew Bible all acrostics are alphabetical: the individual lines of a poem (or occasionally small groups of lines) begin with the twenty–two letters of the Hebrew alphabet in order. (This would be equivalent to the first line of an English poem beginning with A, the second with B, etc.) The acrostic form, besides giving the esthetic pleasure of a pattern, may have been intended to make memorization easier. It may also have been intended as a way of expressing completeness: in Lamentations, for instance, the acrostic format of the individual chs might have been used to express the completeness of the outpouring of grief. The following poems in the Bible are acrostics: Pss. 9–10, 25, 34, 37, 111, 112, 119, 145; Prov. 31.10–31; Lam 1, 2, 3, 4 (ch 5 is not an acrostic, but preserves part of the form by having 22 lines, the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet); Nah 1.2–8 (or 9) (incomplete). In the Hebrew text of Sirach, 51.13–30 is acrostic.
Adar the twelfth month (February-March) in the Jewish year. In order to bring the lunar calendar into alignment with the solar year, a leap year, in which there are two months of Adar, occurs seven times during each nineteen-year cycle of years (see Calendar)
Adonai (Heb “my Lord”) a divine title and the word generally substituted for YHWH when the Bible is read aloud
Ahikar an ancient Near Eastern story of a prime minister to the king of Assyria, who is betrayed by an ungrateful nephew but ultimately vindicated. It is alluded to in Tob 1.21–22.
Akedah (Heb “binding”) the story of the binding of Isaac (Gen 22)
Akkadian the language of Assyria and Babylonia. Akkadian is a Semitic language related to Hebrew, and is written in cuneiform, wedge-shaped writing.
alien see resident alien
allegory an extended comparison, which directly describes one reality while indirectly describing something entirely different. An allegory as a narrative uses action, setting, and characters to point symbolically to something else.
Amarna Letters diplomatic correspondence from the reigns of the Egyptian pharaohs Amenophis III and Akhenaten, written in Akkadian cuneiform, that provide information about Canaan in the fourteenth century bce
Ammon, Ammonites, the territory and its inhabitants east of the Jordan River
Amorites according to the Bible, one of the native nations of Canaan. Amorites are attested in other ancient Near Eastern documents from the third millennium bce and onward as residents of Syria who migrated to Mesopotamia and other areas. Their language was related to Hebrew.
amphictyony a social organization in ancient Greece in which groups were united around a central sanctuary and serviced this sanctuary on a rotating basis. Some scholars think that a similar system existed in Israel in premonarchic times.
anachronism an element in a story that is out of place because it did not exist at the time in which the story is set. Anachronisms can be valuable clues to when a narrative was written.
Anat a Canaanite goddess often depicted as a warrior
anathema (Gk “devoted [to evil],” “accursed”) a solemn pronouncement by a recognized religious authority banning or condemning a person, thing, or idea as false or evil
aniconic (Gk “not representational”) worship without the use of statues or images; also a symbolic or suggestive presentation of a divine being, rather than a literal or realistic rendition
anoint touch or rub with oil. Anointing was a sign that a person or thing was dedicated to God. See also messiah.
anthropomorphic (Gk “in human form”) the description or representation of a divine being in the form of a human person
antichrist the apocalyptic figure presented as opposing God, battling the heavenly angels serving God, or fighting against God’s anointed ruler
antithesis the contrast of ideas through closely contrasted words
antithetic parallelism two parallel lines related to one another by opposition or contrast
aphorism a short, memorable saying
apocalypse (Gr. apokalypsis, “removal of the veil, revelation”) a literary genre in which an angel or other heavenly being communicates to a human being the divine plan for history, especially the end of time
apocalyptic having the character of an apocalypse
Apocrypha (Gk “hidden things”) a group of about twenty mostly Jewish works, many of which were included in the Septuagint, but which are not included in the Jewish or Protestant canons of the Bible. Most of these works are canonical for Roman Catholics; a few more are canonical for Orthodox Christians. See deuterocanon.
apodictic law law stated absolutely, as in the Decalogue’s “you shall not,” rather than casuistically, “if a person … .” See casuistic law.
apologia (Gk “explanation”) a defense of one’s actions or beliefs, usually in a formal speech or written document
apostasy abandoning a set of beliefs, or the position of having abandoned them
apostle (Gk “one who is sent”), a delegate or representative. In the New Testament, an apostle was one who had known Jesus and could witness to the resurrection (Acts 1.21–2), or a preacher of the gospel who had been called by God (1 Cor 12.28; Rom 16.7).
apostrophe (Gk “turn from”) a direct address to someone or something not present
apotropaic (Gk “turn away from”) an action intended to ward off evil
Aramaic a Semitic language used widely in the Near East during the Persian period, though it developed earlier. It became the ordinary language of Jews, and was used by Jesus. An Aramaic translation of the Hebrew Bible is called a Targum.
Aramaism the use in another language of a word or grammatical form derived from Aramaic.
Arameans a Semitic people living in Syria from the second millennium bce onward. Damascus was a principal city of the Arameans.
aretalogy (Gk “words about virtue”) praise of virtues, either of a hero or of oneself
ark of the covenant the chest in the tabernacle or Temple that contained the text or tablets of the covenant, and that served as part of the throne of the lord
Armageddon the traditional site of the final battle between good and evil (Rev 16.6), possibly derived from Megiddo, a strategically located site where many battles occurred
ascension going up, particularly to a divine realm but also literally climbing a hill (as to Jerusalem)
asceticism (Gk “training”) deliberate self-denial or self-punishment for religious purpose
Asherah (pl. Asherim) Canaanite goddess, wife or consort of El; her sacred symbol, a pole or tree, was the object of prophetic condemnation.
Assyria a Mesopotamian world power in the second and first millennia bce. Its capital cities included Ashur and Nineveh. The Assyrian empire conquered the Northern Kingdom of Israel in 722 bce and exiled its people. The Assyrians were well-known for their massive building projects, and for their cruelty in war.
Astarte the Canaanite goddess of love and fertility
atbash a form of code in Hebrew in which the last letter of the alphabet is substituted for the first, the next-to-last for the second, and so on: alep becomes taw, bet becomes shin, gimel becomes resh, etc. (In English, A would become Z, B would become Y, etc.) In Jer 25.26; 51.41, Babylon (b-b-l) is written Sheshach (sh-sh-k).
atonement expiation for sin, or reparation for an injury committed against another
Atrahasis hero of the Mesopotamian epic named for him, who survives the god Enlil’s efforts to destroy humankind by a flood. See also Gilgamesh.
B
Baal (“master,” “lord,” “husband”) the chief god of Canaanite religion, a storm god
Babylonia a Mesopotamian world power. It often competed against Assyria, which it conquered in 612 bce. Its major city was Babylon (Akkadian “gate of the gods”). Its main god became Marduk. Babylonia destroyed Jerusalem in 586, and was conquered by the Persian king Cyrus the Great in 539.
Babylonian exile the forced relocation of some of the population of Judah, especially the elite, after the conquest by Babylonia in the early sixth century bce. The exile ended with the permitted return to the land under Cyrus in 538 bce.
Babylonian Talmud see Talmud
ban (Heb herem) the dedication or sacrifice of war booty (including people) to the deity
baptism ritual purification by immersion in water, used by Christians as an initiation into the community
BCE Before the Common Era, equivalent to bc
Beelzebul (also Baalzebul, Baalzebub, Beelzebub) the ruler of the demons (Mt 12.24–27). It is based on the Hebrew Baalzebul, “Baal the exalted,” a title of the Phoenician god at Ekron (2 Kings 1.2–18), changed probably as a derogatory name into Baalzebub, “lord of flies.”
Behemoth a mythical beast in Job 40.15–24 who represents violent forces in the world
belomancy a method of divination by choosing or tossing down arrows on which names of potential victims are inscribed
berît (Heb “treaty, contract, covenant”) a term that may be used of a legal agreement between two individuals, groups, or nations, or between God and Israel (see covenant)
bicolon unit of Hebrew poetry composed of two cola, or lines (sometimes called a dístich)
Binding (of Isaac) see Akedah
Book of the Covenant see Covenant Collection
booths, festival of (Heb Sukkot) the autumn harvest festival, also called the festival of ingathering), so named because the harvesters lived in the fields in makeshift tents or booths, also called tabernacles
bulla a clay seal with the impression of a signet ring or other symbol of authority
C
Cairo Geniza the storeroom (see geniza) of a synagogue in Old Cairo in which were discovered many thousands of fragments of texts, including a portion of the book of Sirach (Ecclesiasticus) in Hebrew
Canaan in Mesopotamian and Egyptian documents and in some biblical texts, a name for the region in the southern Levant part of which became biblical Israel, whose inhabitants are called Canaanites. Also a grandson of Noah.
canon (Gk “measuring rod”) the rule by which something is determined to belong or not to a category. Christian tradition uses the word for the official list of the books that make up the Bible.
canonical criticism the interpretation of a biblical text based upon its final form, rather than viewing it as an assemblage of preexisting units
casuistic law (also called “case law”) the form of law dealing with the treatment of specific cases. It is frequently in the form of “if/when … then” formulae. Most ancient Near Eastern law collections are formulated this way.
catchword, catchphrase a representative or repeated word or group of words that stands for an argument or point of view; that word or phrase picked up and used in a subsequent or related text
Catholic Epistles (also “Epistles General”) the New Testament letters, from James to 3 John, identified not by their recipients but by their authors and therefore presumed to be addressed to the universal (“catholic” means “entire”) church
CE Common Era, equivalent to ad
centurion in the Roman army, an officer commanding a century, a maximum of a hundred soldiers; there were sixty centuries in a legion
ceramic typology dating different levels of an archaeological site by classifying the pieces of pottery found in them according to the approximate eras in which they were made
Chaldean(s) a collective name for the tribes that were dominant in Babylon from the late sixth century bce; Chaldea is frequently associated with the area of southern Mesopotamia
chaos complete lack of order. In ancient Near Eastern mythology, chaos was sometimes personified as divine beings who had to be conquered by other gods in order to establish an orderly, habitable universe.
charismatic (Gr. “gifted, graced”) characterized by the ability to influence or lead others; personally magnetic; talented
chattel possessions or persons owned by someone else and therefore at that person’s complete disposal
Chemosh the chief god of Moab
cherubim (sing. “cherub”) mythical, composite creatures with body parts from various animals; they often had wings and human heads. They were commonly guardians of temples and palaces in the ancient Near East.
chiasm, chiasmus (from Gr. chi, the letter that resembles an X) inverting the second pair of terms in a parallel structure, so that the corresponding terms, if laid out in a square, would form an X. The resultant pattern is abba, abcba, abccba, etc.
Christ (Gk “anointed”), the translation of Heb mashiah, “messiah.” In the New Testament and in general usage, Christ always refers to Jesus of Nazareth.
christology the theological doctrines concerning the nature of Christ
chronicle an account of events in the order in which they occurred
Chronicler the name for the unknown author of the books of Chronicles; sometimes also applied to the author of Ezra and Nehemiah
church (see also house church) the community of believers in a particular area; the later use of “church” to mean a building where people worship does not occur in the New Testament
church fathers see patristic writers
circumcision the removal of the foreskin of the penis
Cisjordan Latin for “this side of Jordan,” that is, the region west of the Jordan river
citadel a stronghold or fortress, whether standing alone or serving as the inner fortification of a city
clan a social unit, composed of several families considered to be descended from a common ancestor; several clans constituted a tribe
climax (Gk “ladder”), a series of clauses in which each succeeding clause repeats the important term from the previous clause, each clause in turn making a more important point
codex a manuscript of separate pages, bound along one edge. Modern books are a development of the codex.
colon (pl. cola) a single line of poetry (also known as a stich)
colophon (Gk “summit,” by extension “finishing touch”) a notice, usually found at the end of an ancient text, giving information about details such as authorship
concordance a word index to a given text, listing each occurrence of a given word along with its context
concubine a woman who is the sexual partner of a man, and is legally recognized as such, but who does not have the full status of a wife
corvée forced labor for the state
cosmology an account of the origins of the cosmos
cosmopolis (Gk “world city”) a major metropolis, usually the main city of an empire, to which peoples from different countries or ethnic groups came or in which they resided
cosmos (Gk “order, regularity”) the created world of order, stability, relative permanence; the opposite of chaos
Council of Trent the twenty-ninth ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church (1545–1563), held after the Protestant Reformation had begun. Among other decisions, it defined the books that are included in the Catholic canon of Scripture.
covenant (Heb berit) a contract or treaty. Some covenants have specific conditions or treaty stipulations, while others are covenants of grant; often used of the relationship between God and Israel
Covenant Code another term for Covenant Collection
Covenant Collection an ancient set of laws (Ex 20.19–23.33), which details the terms of the covenant between God and Israel
cult prostitute one available for sexual intercourse with worshipers at the temple of a god
cult rituals and religious practices at a place of worship. The cult of the Jerusalem Temple means the religious practices carried out there, with no judgment about their value.
Cynics (Gk “dogs, doglike ones”) a nickname for a Greek philosophical movement of the fourth century bce aimed at achieving happiness by lessening desires, and therefore needing less; it also taught contempt (or at least disregard) for social conventions and consequent lack of shame about meeting one’s physical needs (hence the nickname, since dogs were popularly supposed to have no shame)
Cyrus Cylinder an Akkadian inscription describing the conquest of Babylon by Cyrus
Cyrus king of Persia (559–530 bce). He defeated Media in 550 and conquered most of the ancient Near East, including Babylonia, allowing the Jewish exiles in Babylonia to return to Judah in 538
D
D according to the Documentary Hypothesis, the Deuteronomic source, which covers almost the entire book of Deuteronomy
Davidic dynasty the direct descendents of King David, who ruled in Jerusalem from the tenth to the early sixth centuries bce
Davidic having to do with the monarchic dynasty founded by David that ruled over Israel and, after the division of the kingdom, the southern part (Judah) until the Babylonian conquest and exile of the sixth century bce; also the movement to restore that monarchy or to reproduce the self-rule that it represented
Day of Atonement, Heb Yom Kippur, the tenth day of the seventh month in the fall, a day of fasting and repentance
Day of the Lord the time mentioned in many prophetic books when God will appear as a warrior, sometimes fighting against Israel, sometimes against Israel’s enemies
Dead Sea Scrolls a group of manuscripts found beginning in 1947 in caves near the Dead Sea, at Wadi Qumran. The scrolls were probably the library of an Essene settlement that flourished at the site from the second century bce until it was destroyed by the Romans in 68 ce. The library included Hebrew manuscripts of biblical books older than those previously known, and other scrolls regulating the life of the community that shed light on the variety of Jewish belief and practice in the Roman period.
Decalogue (Gk “ten words”) a traditional name for the list of ten commandments in Ex 20.1–17, Deut 5.6–21
defective spelling the form of a word in the Hebrew text that is missing one or more optional vowel letters
defilement a state of ritual impurity caused by contact with a corpse or other impure object. Priestly literature in the Torah is especially concerned with defilement and removing defilement.
demon, demonic (Gk “spirit”) a being of the spiritual realm, or a quality of that realm, particularly one opposed or hostile to human beings
deuterocanon, deuterocanonical (Gk “second canon”), those books or portions of books not included in the Jewish or Protestant canons but accepted as canonical by some Christian churches (Roman Catholic and Orthodox) because they were included in the Septuagint. The NRSV places notices within the Apocryphal/ Deuterocanonical Books explaining which ones are accepted by which groups.
Deutero-Isaiah see Second Isaiah
Deuteronomistic History the account in the books of Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings that presents the history of Israel in the promised land, interpreting it a partial failure to keep the covenant faithfully, and the consequences of that failure. These books show significant theological and linguistic similarities, suggesting that they have a common editor or editors.
Deuteronomistic pertaining to the editor(s) of the history comprised in the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings, as prefaced by the book of Deuteronomy. The term is also applied to the style of these books, reflecting concern for such matters as obedience to the laws given in Deuteronomy, centralized worship in Jerusalem, and support for the Davidic dynasty.
Deutero-Pauline (Gk “secondary [letters] of Paul”) the writings (Ephesians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Timothy, Titus, and sometimes Hebrews) traditionally attributed to Paul but which many modern scholars now classify as written by others, perhaps some of them disciples of Paul
devil a spiritual being opposed to God or to the angels of God
diaspora (Gk “dispersal”) the scattering of Jews from the promised land Israel, and hence any Jews living outside Israel. Also dispersion.
diatribe an argument against a position, or one critical of a person or group. Diatribe often includes an imagined dialogue between opposing viewpoints.
Didache (Gk “teaching”) an early Christian writing, dating from around 150 ce but including earlier materials. It consists of moral exhortation, a manual of church order, and guidance for community life. It is valuable for providing insight into the concerns of early Christian communities, and contains material similar to that in the Pastoral Epistles.
dietary laws see kosher
diptych two leaves joined with a hinge; a form of ancient notebook in which leaves, wax-covered on the inner surface, could be inscribed with notes.
disciple a follower, an adherent of a particular teaching
dispersion see diaspora
divination the effort to learn about the present or the future, by consulting mediums, interpreting omens, and the like
divine warrior God in the role of leader of the heavenly armies, usually seen as fighting for Israel. See also holy war.
Documentary Hypothesis a theory about the formation of the first five books of the Bible, Genesis through Deuteronomy. The hypothesis holds that there are four traditions underlying these books, naming them after a chief characteristic of each: “”J or the “Yahwist” (“”J from the German spelling “Jahveh”) uses the divine name “YHWH” (the Lord) consistently and contains much of the oldest material; “”E or the “Elohist” uses the divine name “Elohim” (God) fairly consistently and contains traditions from the Northern Kingdom of Israel; “”P or the “Priestly” writer is concerned largely with legal codes and matters of religious practice; and “”D or the “Deuteronomist” represents the traditions gathered mostly in Deuteronomy.
doxology (Gk “word of glory”) a prayer of praise to God, or one glorifying God
dualism the religious or philosophical view that reality consists of two basic elements, often seen as “good” and “evil”
dynasty a ruling family; when a leader dies, the next leader is always chosen from among the family members
E
E according to the Documentary Hypothesis, the Elohist source, which in Genesis refers to God as elohim. It is general though to have originated in the Northern Kingdom of Israel.
Edom, Edomites the territory and people to the southeast and south of Judah, first attested in late second-millennium bce texts. Edom is identified in Genesis 36 with Esau, Jacob’s brother. The enmity between these brothers and between Judah and Edom mirror each other. Edom was later called Idumea.
El a Canaanite deity popular in the second millennium bce. In the texts from Ugarit, he is a significant deity, but is often depicted as old and is largely supplanted by Baal.
elect, election those whom God has chosen (Matt 24.22,24; Rom 8.33) or the process of God’s having chosen a group (Rom 9.11); these terms do not imply the later (Calvinist) teaching of predestination
Elephantine Papyri Aramaic documents, mostly from the fifth century bce, found on the island of Elephantine, near Syene (modern Aswan) in Egypt. The papyri show that among those who inhabited the colony on Elephantine were Jews who kept up religious observances, such as Passover, and had their own temple.
elohim the Hebrew word usually translated “God,” though its plural form is sometimes also translated “gods.” It is originally a common noun (a god), though it is often used as a proper noun for the God of Israel, even though it is a plural form.
encomium a formal speech praising someone, as in a funeral oration
Enuma Elish a Babylonian text in which the god Marduk becomes king of the gods after creating the cosmos from the body of the goddess of the deep, Tiamat, whom Marduk defeated
ephod (1) the linen apron worn by priests in the Temple; (2) a device used to divine the will of God. The second kind of ephod was carried in priestly garments, which may explain why the same word can be used for both.
Ephraim son of Joseph, for whom the most important tribe of the Northern Kingdom is named
Epicureans a Greek philosophical school, founded by Epicurus (341–270 bce), who taught that human beings naturally seek pleasure, and that the best way to achieve this pursuit was in moderation, since moderation permits the longest possible life of pleasure-seeking
Epiphanes a title, “[God] made manifest,” adopted by Antiochus IV, the ruler of the part of the Greek empire that included Judea during the second century bce. He was the king who forced pagan worship to occur in the Jerusalem Temple, thus provoking the revolt of the Maccabees.
epiphany (Gk “appearing”) the manifestation or visual presence of a divine being
epiphany (Gk “manifestation, appearance”) usually the appearance of a god or divine being in a form that can be seen by human beings
episcopacy, episcopate (Gk “overseer”) a form of church governance in which one authority is responsible for the Christians in a particular geographical area
epistle a letter, sometimes intended for public reading and therefore written according to a particular literary form
Epistles General see Catholic Epistles
epistolary prescript a standard salutation or opening phrase at the beginning of a letter
epithet a word or phrase that characterizes a person or thing, and that can often be used by itself to refer to the person
eponymous (Gk “regarding the name”) person for whom something is named; Judas Maccabeus is the eponymous main character of the books of 1 and 2 Maccabees
eschatological, eschatology (Gr. eschata, “last things”) a concern with the end time, or the end of the world as we know it, whether that involves a new historical era radically discontinuous from this one, or an entirely new cosmos after the destruction of the current one
eschaton (Gk “final thing”) the end of a period or era; the final stage of history
Essenes a communal society in Judaism from the second century bce to the first century ce whose members lived apart in communities that were similar in some respects to later monastic groups. It is generally agreed that the Dead Sea Scrolls were collected and preserved by an Essene community.
ethics, ethical (Gk “custom”) rules of behavior or moral standards expected in a particular place or among a particular group; behavior conforming to those rules or standards
etiology (Gr. aition, “cause”) an explanation for a name, an event, a custom or ritual, or a natural phenomenon. An etiological story is one that posits a particular cause (not necessarily correctly) for something.
etymology (Gk “study of origins”) the study of the derivation of words from their root meanings
Eucharist a ritual or service of thanksgiving, centering on the sharing of bread and wine, based on the final meal Jesus shared with his followers before his trial and crucifixion; also called Communion, the Lord’s Supper, and the Mass.
eunuch a castrated male, sometimes a guard for a ruler’s concubines and sometimes an official in a court or government
euphemism the substitution of an inoffensive word for one that is too explicit or impolite
evangelist (from Gk euangelion, “good news”) the author of a gospel
exegesis (Gk “lead into”) the explanation or interpretation of the meaning of a written text
exhortation urging a particular course of action or behavior by argument or advice
exile the forced removal of a people from its land, and the community in which they lived in the foreign land. The Israelites of the Northern Kingdom were exiled by the Assyrians in the late eighth century bce, and the Judeans were exiled by the Babylonians in the early sixth century. Specifically, “the Exile” is the period from 586 to 538 bce, when much of the population of Judah was deported from Judah to Babylon. See Babylonian Exile.
F
fable an illustrative story in which animals or plants have speaking parts.
Fertile Crescent the agriculturally fertile areas of the Near East and Mesopotamia, forming an arc through the modern countries of Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and Iraq
festival scrolls the five short books that are read on five holy days in the Jewish calendar: Song of Songs on Passover, Ruth on the festival of weeks, Lamentations on 9 Ab (the date of the Temple’s destruction), Ecclesiastes on the festival of booths, and Esther on Purim
First Temple the Temple in Jerusalem built by King Solomon in the tenth century bce and destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 bce
form criticism the interpretation of a text with particular attention to its genre and structure and to the original setting (Sitz im Leben) out of which it arose
Former Prophets the name in the Hebrew Bible for the first part of the longer section called “the Prophets.” The Former Prophets are the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings.
forty in biblical usage, a conventional number for a lengthy or completed time period: forty years of wandering in the wilderness (Num 14.33–34), forty years of kingship for David (1Kings 2.11), and Solomon (1 Kings 11.42), forty days of fasting for Moses (Ex 34.28) or Jesus (Mt 4.2 and parallels)
G
Galilee the northernmost geographical area of Israel
Gehenna originally the valley of (the son of ) Hinnom, a place outside of Jerusalem where children were burnt as sacrificial offerings. Its associations with burning and evil developed into the image of a place of fiery punishment.
gematria (Heb gimatriya, likely from Gk geometria) a procedure for interpreting a word or phrase by its numerical value. Hebrew letters may represent numbers (alef = 1; bet = 2, etc.), and the letters of a word or phrase are added up and equated with other words having the same total.
genealogy a list or history of the ancestors of an individual or group
geniza a storeroom in a synagogue used for keeping old books and objects, especially those too sacred to be discarded. See also Cairo Geniza.
genre a form of literature with particular characteristics
gentile a non-Jew
Gilgamesh the Mesopotamian epic, whose hero, Gilgamesh, travels the world in search of immortality. Among the characters he encounters is Utnapishtim, whose tale of the flood has parallels with the biblical account of Noah.
glean to gather or collect, usually by hand, grain that is left behind by reapers
glossolalia the phenomenon of ecstatic speech, or “speaking in tongues” that characterized some early Christian worship (1 Cor 12.10,28,30); it occurs in some Pentecostal Christian worship in the present day. The report of the speeches on the Feast of Weeks (Pentecost) in Acts 2.4–11 maintains that the languages spoken were human languages that could be understood by those in attendance; the reports in the letters reflect not a known, spoken language but a transitory occurrence during worship when one or more worshipers would break into speech (perhaps regarded as the speech of heavenly beings) that neither they nor their hearers could understand.
Gnosticism (from Gk gnosis, “knowledge”) a philosophy that regards spirit and matter as opposites. According to Gnostic teaching, human beings are spirits trapped or imprisoned in matter; the material world is an illusion or the work of an inferior, even demonic, divine being; and the purpose of life is to learn how to free oneself from material things (including the body) and attain eternal life in the spiritual realm. This is accomplished by learning specialized or secret knowledge about the nature of reality; it is from this emphasis on knowledge that gnosticism gets its name.
Greek Bible a general term for the variety of ancient translations of the Hebrew Bible into Greek in antiquity, including the Septuagint and the translations of Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion
H
H see Holiness Collection
Hades the Greek name for the underworld, to which the disembodied souls of the dead went; it was similar to Sheol (see)
hallelujah a Hebrew acclamation, “Praise Yah!” It is frequent in the Psalms.
Hammurabi (or Hammurapi) king of Babylon in the eighteenth century bce, responsible for the formulation of a legal collection (the Code [or Laws] of Hammurabi) that is one of the earliest collections of case law
Hanukkah see Hasmonean revolt
haruspex a practicer of divination who examines inner organs of chickens for guidance
Hasmonean Revolt the uprising led by the family of Mattathias Heshmon against the Seleucid ruler Antiochus IV Epiphanes beginning in 166 bce, particularly by Mattathias’s son Judah (or Judas) Maccabeus (“the hammer”), which succeeded in liberating Jerusalem and the surrounding territory from Seleucid rule in 164. When the Temple, which had been desecrated by Antiochus, was retaken by the Jews it was rededicated, an event commemorated in the festival of Hanukkah (“dedication”).
Hasmonean the dynasty descended from the Maccabee brothers. It ruled Judea from 135 to 36 bce; the last Hasmonean was overthrown by Herod the Great
Hebrew Bible a term used to refer to what Christians call the (Protestant) Old Testament. Though the two terms refer to the same body of writings, the order of books in the Hebrew Bible (that is, the Jewish Bible) differs from that found in the Old Testament.
Hellenism the spread of Greek culture, politics, and language around the Mediterranean in the period after the conquests of Alexander the Great (d. 323 bce)
Hellenistic Greek-speaking or influenced by Greek culture after the time of Alexander
Hellenize bring under the influence of Greek language and culture
hepatoscopy the practice of divination by examining animal livers for guidance
herem see ban
hermeneutics (Gk “interpretation”) the theory and practice of interpretation
Herodian followers and members of the court of Herod the Great and his sons (late first century bce to late first century ce)
Hexapla the compendium of six Bible versions (in columns: 1. Hebrew, 2. Hebrew transliterated into Greek, 3. Greek [Aquila], 4. Greek [Symmachus], 5. Septuagint, 6. Greek [Theodotion]) compiled by the early Christian scholar Origen (d. 254). The original was lost, but quotations from and translations of it have survived.
Hexateuch (Gr. “six scrolls”) a scholarly grouping of the first six books in the Bible, Genesis through Joshua. See Pentateuch, Tetrateuch
high places shrines, usually on a hill or a raised platform, where worship, especially sacrifices, took place
higher criticism the effort to distinguish among the sources of biblical documents, and to trace them back to their origins; distinguished from “lower criticism” or textual criticism, which is concerned with establishing the most accurate text in its final form. See Documentary Hypothesis; synoptic problem.
historical-critical method interpreting a text by trying to understand its original setting and audience, and what it would have meant when it was originally written or spoken. This method uses the tools of historical research to understand the conditions of the past, and critical tools to understand the traditions and developments that lie behind the surface of the text. It is also a general term that includes such methods as form criticism and redaction criticism.
Holiness Code, Collection, School, Source the ritual and ethical laws in Lev 17–26, named from the repeated exhortation to the Israelites to be holy, or the purported authors or collectors of the material in those chapters. “Collection” is preferred in the annotations herein. “Code” implies a definitive, legal corpus, whereas “Collection” acknowledges the coherence of the chapters without implying a particular purpose in bringing the materials together. “Source” posits a particular document that is reproduced in the chapters, a document produced by a “School” that aimed at inculcating holiness among the people. The authors of this group of laws (sometimes called the Holiness School) were affiliated with the Priestly school and also wrote small sections dispersed throughout the first four books of the Bible; the entire work is often abbreviated H.
holocaust a sacrifice entirely consumed by fire, a whole burnt offering
holy war battles conducted under divine guidance in which the Lord fought for Israel in the role of divine warrior
homily a sermon
Horeb possibly another name for Sinai (see), primarily though not exclusively in Deuteronomy (e.g., Deut 1.2; Ex 3.1)
hortatory characteristic of writing or speech that aims at changing the behavior of the hearers or inspiring them to a particular course of action
hosanna a Hebrew word, meaning “Save!” that was used as a cry of acclamation
house church a descriptive term (not used in the NT itself) for a worship gathering of early Christians in a home rather than a separate building such as a synagogue
household rules the codes of behavior and hierarchy that governed domestic relations in the Roman world, particularly a patriarchal authority system, the subordination of women, children, and slaves, and the rights and responsibilities of various parties in a familial relationship; see Eph 6.1–9; Titus 2.1–10
Hyksos rulers in Egypt of Semitic origin in the mid-second millennium bce
hyperbole exaggeration for effect
hypostatization speaking of an abstract quality as if it were an object or a living being. See also personification.
hyssop a shrub related to mint. It was used as a medicine and, because of its leafy branches, for ritual sprinkling of water or blood.
I
idolatry the worship of anything other than what the worshiper defines as the true God
Idumea later name for Edom, a kingdom located south of Judah, between the Dead Sea and the Mediterranean
Ignatius, Letters of early Christian writings of instruction. The author, Ignatius, bishop of Antioch in the late first century ce, wrote them (seven are known to have survived) on his way to martyrdom in Rome. They are largely concerned with overcoming divisions in local churches, combating false teaching, and conducting one’s life properly.
imprecation a curse or other prayer for harm to another; the opposite of blessing
impurity a ritual state which prevented an individual from participating in religious rituals (see defilement)
incarnation (Latin, “enfleshment”) the belief that a divine being has become human in some form
inclusio the use of the same word or phrase at the end of a passage as appeared at the beginning, thus rounding off or completing it. Also called inclusion, frame, and envelope structure.
incubation the practice of sleeping in a particular place, or in contact with particular things (animal skins, the ground) in order to induce dreams that might provide divine guidance
inspiration the belief that the words uttered by a human being are really the words of a divine being. In the ancient world, prophets and oracles were thought to be inspired. In Christian tradition, the notion of inspiration was eventually applied to the whole Bible.
intercalation adding a day or month to a calendar to compensate for the inexact fit between the solar year and the daily or lunar cycle. In the Jewish calendar, an extra month (a repetition of Adar) is intercalated in seven years of the nineteen-year cycle.
interpolation an insertion of material into a previously existent text
irony (adj., ironic) a characteristic of literature in which the reader or listener knows more than the characters about the situation in the story. By extension, an ironic aspect of a story, situation, or fact is one that from the outside looks very different than it does from the inside. Irony thus becomes a rhetorical technique in which the author’s literal meaning differs from the author’s intended meaning.
Ishtar Mesopotamian goddess of fertility and war
Isis Egyptian goddess, wife of Osiris, the god of vegetation and hence of regeneration
Israel the name for both the union of twelve tribal groups, of which David and Solomon were kings, and for the northern section of this kingdom, which split off after the death of Solomon and began a separate political existence under Jeroboam (1 Kings 12). See Northern Kingdom, Southern Kingdom.
J
J (from Jahvist, German for Yahwist) according to the Documentary Hypothesis, the document or source that uses the divine name (see YHWH). J is usually understood to be the earliest source, and to have been written in Judah. It frequently depicts God in very anthropomorphic terms.
Jerome (ca. 345–420) Christian theologian and translator. He translated the Bible into Latin, in the case of the Old Testament directly from the Hebrew. His version became known as the Vulgate (“common”) because it was commonly used in Western Christianity. With the Protestant Reformation, its authority was questioned, but was reaffirmed by the Roman Catholic Church at the Council of Trent.
Johannine characteristic of, or having to do with, the NT literature associated with the Gospel of John and 1, 2, 3 John; sometimes (though not in more recent scholarship) also applied to the book of Revelation
Joseph and Aseneth (also spelled Asenath) a Jewish novel written in Greek in the first century bce or the first century ce about Joseph’s life in Egypt; his marriage to Asenath, the daughter of an Egyptian priest (see Gen 41.45); her conversion to faith in Joseph’s God; and their triumph over a plot to kill them.
Josephus a Jewish historian who lived from ca. 37 ce to ca. 100 ce. Four of his works, all written in Greek, have survived: The Jewish War, an account of the rebellion against Rome in 66–70 ce, with background information starting at ca. 200 bce; The Antiquities of the Jews, a complete history from the creation up to the point where The Jewish War begins; Against Apion, a defense of Judaism; and an autobiography, the Life.
jubilee (Heb yovel, perhaps “ram” from the sounding of the ram’s horn to mark the beginning of the observance) the year of release for slaves and return of ancestral lands to their original owners (or descendants of the owners), to occur every fifty years (after seven sabbaths of years). It is a cornerstone of Priestly ideology, but it is uncertain if it was ever practiced.
Jubilees, book of a retelling, attributed to Moses, of much of Genesis and Exodus and representing itself as a hidden revelation from the Angel of the Presence. It was most likely written in the second century bce in Judea. The book gets its name from its concern with cycles of time. Jubilees was apparently considered authoritative by the Qumran community.
Judah, Yehud, Judea, Judean when the kingdom of Israel was divided, after the death of Solomon (1 Kings 12.1–20), the southern portion (Southern Kingdom) took the name of its major tribe, Judah (Heb Yehudah). That proper noun became “Yehud” during the Persian period (536–333 bce), “Ioudaia” during Greek rule (333–67), and “Judaea” or Judea under the Romans. The geographical territory had also been diminished, until by the time of the Romans it consisted of the area around Jerusalem, south of Samaria, west of Perea and the Dead Sea, and north of Idumea (though administratively “Judea and Samaria” could also be referred to as “Judea” simply). The inhabitants of the territory were Judeans (just as the inhabitants of the northern area west of the Sea of Galilee were Galileans). The terms “Judaism” and “Jew” are derived from this name.
jussive a verb form in the third person expressing a command
justification translation of the underlying Gk term “making righteous,” expressing the restoration of one’s proper relationship to the moral realm or to God (see Rom 5.1–21)
K
kere see qere.
ketib (“what is written”; also ketiv) the biblical text in its written form, in contrast, in certain cases, to the way it is to be read aloud (qere)
Ketubim (also Kethubim, Ketuvim) The Writings, the third division of the Hebrew Bible
kosher (Heb “fit” or “proper”) a general term used in postbiblical texts for dietary laws; usually applied to food, but also to other ritual objects and practices.
L
lament a poem of grief or mourning (see also qinah)
Last Supper the name for the meal that Jesus shared with his closest followers on the night before his crucifixion (Mt 26.20–29 and parallels)
Latter Prophets the canonical division of Nevi’im that includes the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Twelve Minor Prophets
law the usual English translation of Hebrew torah, which more generally means “teaching, instruction.” Torah is also the name for the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, Genesis through Deuteronomy.
laying on hands a gesture of healing, blessing, or setting something or someone apart for religious purposes
lectionary a list of readings of scripture passages for sabbaths and holy days (in Judaism) or Sundays and holy days (in Christianity). Christian lectionaries also sometimes include readings for weekdays. Lectionaries are partly designed to read certain portions of the Bible—for instance, the Torah, in Jewish lectionaries, or the first three Gospels, in many Christian lectionaries—completely through, in order, over a lectionary cycle of a year or several years. In addition, in Christian lectionaries important seasons (for instance, Christmas or Easter) have their own specific readings outside the continuous readings. In the synagogue, the Torah reading is followed by what is called a Haftarah reading (haphtarah is Hebrew for “conclusion, completion”) from one of the prophets; in addition, the festival scrolls are read on five holy days.
legate an official representative
legend a popular story, sometimes exaggerated or romanticized, about a holy or important person or place.
Levant (Lat “rising”) the east as the direction of the rising sun; more usually, the lands at the eastern end of the Mediterranean
Leviathan a monster of the sea in Canaanite mythology, who is defeated by Baal. It is sometimes identified with the crocodile (Job 41.1) and represents the forces of watery chaos which must be overcome at creation (Ps 74.1–17) and that will be finally defeated at the end of time (Isa 27.1). In the book of Revelation, the dragon, the enemy of God, is identified with the sea (17.1,3), and in the new creation there is no more sea (21.1).
levirate marriage (from Latin levir, “husband’s brother”) the provision that if a man died without an heir to carry on his name, his brother would marry the widow and the first son she bore would be regarded as the dead brother’s heir
Levites the priests of Israel were deemed to be descendants of Levi, therefore members of the tribe of Levi, or Levites (sometimes levites). There is little evidence for this tribe, but the religious authorities in early Israel claimed descent from Aaron (see), the first high priest. Perhaps during the reform of Josiah, however, the levites were demoted to Temple assistants, probably when their local shrines were suppressed, and the Jerusalem priesthood, claiming descent from Zadok (see Zadokites) gained greater power and wealth.
lex talionis (Latin “law [of retribution] in kind”) punishment fitting the crime; see talion
lingua franca a common tongue or shared language that enables people with different native languages to converse, carry on commercial relationships, etc. In the Persian period Aramaic replaced Akkadian as a lingua franca around the Near East; during the Hellenistic period Greek did the same for the lands surrounding the eastern Mediterranean.
litany (Gk “entreaty”) a prayer form consisting of a series of petitions or supplications, often following each with a repeated congregational response
littoral a region along the shore of a large body of water
liturgical characteristic of an order for worship, either directions for action (rituals) or texts for speaking (rites)
liturgy the form or ritual for communal, public worship
Lord’s Supper a term (used in the NT only at 1 Cor 11.20) for the commemoration or re-enactment of Jesus’ last meal with his followers (see Last Supper)
lot(s) any method of choosing something by random chance, as by tossing a marked stone (similar to flipping a coin) or choosing an arrow or a stick from a group of similar objects. “Casting lots” was used to select candidates for a position (Acts 1.15–26), to determine who had transgressed a vow or law (1 Sam 14.41–42), or in other ways to determine the divine will, since it was assumed that an event that was random from the human perspective could be determined by divine direction.
LXX the roman numeral 70, the standard abbreviation for the Septuagint
M
Maat Egyptian goddess of reason and order; her name literally means “truth”
Major Prophets a convenient title for the three longest prophetic books, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel (in Christian Bibles, also Daniel); in contrast to Minor Prophets (see)
makarism (Gk “happy, blessed”) a statement of blessing or an attribution of happiness to one who follows the exhortation of the speaker; the Beatitudes (Mt 5.3–11) are makarisms, perhaps following the form of many Psalms such as Ps 1.1, “Happy are those who do not follow the advice of the wicked. …”
malediction curse; opposite of benediction, “blessing”
manumission release from servitude
Marduk chief god of Babylon; according to Enuma Elish, he formed the cosmos from the corpse of Tiamat, goddess of the deep
martyr (Gk “witness”) a person who demonstrates loyalty by remaining faithful to his or her religion even when being threatened with death or being killed
martyrology (Gk “list of witnesses [to their faith]”) an account of the martyrdoms of various individuals, or an official list of those accounted as martyrs, that is, who were killed because of their religious beliefs
Masorah (Heb “tradition”) the system of markings (vowel signs, marginal notes, cantillation and accent marks, etc.) that were added to the consonantal Hebrew text by scribal scholars (Masoretes) in the early Middle Ages
Masorete a scholar of the scribal schools that in the early Middle Ages established the basic Hebrew text for the Bible, fixed its accepted pronunciation, and ensured its accurate copying and transmission by a system of markings (Masorah)
Masoretic Text the text of the Hebrew Bible, established by Jewish scholars (Masoretes). The text consists of the Hebrew consonants, vowel signs, accent markings, and other notes. Texts derived from this effort date from circa 900 to 1000 ce. The Masoretic Text is the only complete form of the Hebrew Bible that has survived, though individual manuscripts of books are among the Dead Sea Scrolls.
matrilineal tracing descent through female ancestors; see patrilineal
matzah unleavened bread, associated with Passover, but also used with certain sacrifices.
Megillot Heb “scrolls,” in Jewish tradition the five festival scrolls, the books of Song of Solomon (read at Passover), Ruth (on Shavuot [Weeks/Pentecost]), Lamentations (on Tisha B’Ab, commemorating the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 bce and 70 ce), Ecclesiastes (on Sukkot [Tabernacles]), and Esther (on Purim)
merism a figure of speech in which opposing terms, e.g., “good and bad,” are combined to convey the idea of including both terms and everything in between
Merneptah Stele an Egyptian inscribed stone that includes the first mention of Israel outside the Bible. It celebrates victories of Pharaoh Merneptah (ca. 1200 bce) in Canaan.
Merodach a Hebrew version of Marduk, chief god of Babylon
Mesha Stele (also called the Moabite Stone) a monument dating from about 830 bce with engraved text celebrating the reign of King Mesha of Moab (2 Kings 3.4–5). Besides an account of the dealings of Mesha with the descendants of Omri, king of the Northern Kingdom of Israel, the text mentions the god of Moab, Chemosh, and the favor that Chemosh has shown to Mesha in contrast to his predecessors in allowing Mesha to reclaim territory from Israel. It also contains a reference to the herem or ban.
Mesopotamia (Gk “between the rivers”) the area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers
messiah ( Heb mashiah, “anointed [one]”) a title for a king or other servant or agent of God (priest, prophet, or even the non-Israelite Cyrus in Isa. 45.1). In the Hebrew Bible, mashiah never refers to the future ideal king. Later the term came to be used of the expected savior of the Jewish people, and was taken over by Christians to refer to Jesus, whom they believed to be the messiah (Gk christos, “anointed”). See also Christ.
messianic having to do with the messiah or with the era that the messiah was inaugurating
Messianic Secret conventional term for Jesus’ commands, primarily in Mark (1.44; 3.12; 8.30 and elsewhere), not to proclaim his status or deeds publicly
metaphor a direct comparison between two things
metonymy a figure of speech in which a word is used in place of another word to which it is closely related: “The coastlands have seen and are afraid” (Isa 41.5) means “the inhabitants of the coasts, foreigners.”
mezuzah (Heb “doorpost”) a parchment on which are written the paragraphs of the Shema
midrash, midrashic (Heb derash “inquire”) interpretation that finds meanings in a text that are other than, or go beyond, the “plain sense” (see peshat)
Minor Prophets the twelve shorter prophetic books from Hosea to Malachi, seen as a collection; also known as the Book of the Twelve
Mishnah (Heb “oral instruction,” from shanah “repeat”) the compilation of oral law and rabbinic commentary, edited ca. 200 ce, that is the basis of the Talmud
Moab, Moabites the territory and its inhabitants east of the Dead Sea
Moabite Stone see Mesha Stele
Molech a Canaanite god whose worship according to the biblical writers included child sacrifice
Mosaic having to do with Moses or with the teaching that Moses is purported to have proclaimed in the Torah (Pentateuch)
Mot the Canaanite god of death
motif an image or character type that recurs throughout a literary work
mystery in the New Testament, a divine truth that is kept hidden or secret by God until the right moment for it to be revealed
mystery religion any one of various religious groups in the Greek and Roman empires which practiced secret rites of initiation. Mystery religions taught that the real meaning of life could not be learned without divine guidance and that such guidance was available in their secret teachings and practices. These secret rites were themselves known as “mysteries,” and had the sense of a revelation from the divine realm that is similar to some of the New Testament uses of “mystery.”
mysticism the effort to be in direct contact with a divine realm, as opposed to the view that the divine must always be mediated—by subordinate beings such as angels or by a human being, a sacred text, or some other bridge
N
narrative a connected, orderly account of an incident, or a longer account including many incidents. Narratives can be historical, fictional, legendary, mythical, or a combination of types.
Nebi’im see Nevi’im
necromancy (Gk “divination [by means of] the dead”) the effort to determine the unknown or the future by consulting those who are dead, as in Saul’s questioning of the dead Samuel through the medium of Endor (1 Sam 28.3–25). If teraphim (see) are images of ancestors, then divination by their means would be a form of necromancy.
Negeb, Negev the region south of the central hill country of Israel
Nevi’im (also Nebi’im) the Prophets, the second division of the Hebrew Bible, subdivided into the Former Prophets and the Latter Prophets
new moon the beginning of any month in the Jewish calendar
Northern Kingdom the political assembly of tribal groups that split off from the kingdom of Israel after Solomon’s death. This newly formed kingdom was itself called Israel, and in some texts also Ephraim, after its largest tribe.
novel a fictional work in prose. Ancient novels were often romances.
O
obelisk a four-sided stone shaft, usually tapered and topped with a pyramid, characteristic of ancient Egypt
Old Latin the Latin translation of the Bible based on the Greek text, the Septuagint. The Old Latin version was replaced by the Vulgate, the Latin translation by Jerome.
oracle (usually translates Heb masa’, literally “burden”) a statement uttered by a prophet or other sacred person, purporting to be the words of a deity
oracular having the qualities of an oracle or sacred speech
Oral Torah a synonym for the Mishnah and Talmud. According to traditional rabbinic belief, the Oral Law was given to Moses on Mount Sinai along with the written law, the Torah. It was committed to writing by the rabbis in the first millennium ce.
ordination a formal ceremony and process by which certain members of the community are set apart for religious service, for instance as priests
oxymoron (Gk “clever-foolish”) combining two terms that appear contradictory.
P
P according to the Documentary Hypothesis, the Priestly source in the Pentateuch, comprised of both narratives and laws. It is concerned, among other things, with laws and regulations, ritual practices, the proper conduct of the Temple worship, holiness and purity, and genealogies.
Palestine a name first used by the fifth-century bce historian Herodotus and adopted by the Romans in the designation Provincia Syria Palaestina (“Syro-Palestinian Province”), which replaced Provincia Judaea (“Judean Province”) after 135 ce. The word is derived from the term translated “Philistine,” and the Latin spelling of “Philistine,” and the Roman designation was probably intended as a derogation of Jewish claims to the territory.
pantheon (Gk “all gods”) the complete community of divine beings worshiped or honored in a particular culture
papyrus (pl. papyri) the paper made from reeds that grow along the Nile and other rivers in the Near East; the reeds were split, soaked, laid side-by-side in one layer with another layer, also side-by-side, at right angles, and then pounded together until the matted fibers had meshed into a flat, somewhat flexible sheet. Papyri were one of the writing surfaces (others being clay and animal skins) in use in antiquity. Early Gk manuscripts of the NT are on papyri, and many significant texts—such as P46, an important textual source of Paul’s letters that also includes the Letter to the Hebrews—are in this form.
parable a statement or story that uses figurative or imaginative language to evoke a reality that lies beyond the literal level of the story of statement. A parable makes its point by analogy, or the comparison of a known fact, situation, or experience with one that is less familiar.
parallelism a characteristic feature of biblical Hebrew poetry in which the second line of a unit in some way echoes the meaning or grammatical structure of the first line. This can take the form of a repetition of the meaning, or of a statement of opposites, or of a further statement that serves to extend or modify the first line in some way.
parenesis moral exhortation
parousia (Gk “coming”) the second coming of Christ; the expected return of the messiah at the end of the age or the end of the world
Paschal pertaining to the Passover (ultimately from Gk pascha, derived from Heb pesah)
Passover (Heb pesah) the festival that commemorates the Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt
Pastoral Epistles or Pastoral Letters a term used for three letters attributed to Paul, 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus
patriarchs the ancestors of Israel: Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob
patriarchy the social and cultural arrangements and conventions in which the father of a family, older males, or males generally, exercise authority over females, children, slaves, and those younger; characteristic of Israelite and Roman social practice
patrilineal tracing one’s descent through male ancestors; see also matrilineal
patristic writers theologians of the early Christian centuries, including Clement, Irenaeus, Origen, and Jerome
patronym, patronymic (Gk “father’s name”) the designation of a person or group by the name of their father or ancestor
Pauline characteristic of the thought or writings of Paul; those letters generally accepted to be by Paul: Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon
penitential psalms Psalms 6, 32, 38, 51, 102, 130, and 143, used in Christian services of repentance from the earliest times
Pentapolis the five cities of the Philistines: Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, Gaza
Pentateuch (Gk “five scrolls”) the first five books of the Bible, Genesis through Deuteronomy; the Torah
Pentecost see weeks, festival of
periphrasis, periphrastic the use of more words than necessary to express a thought
Persian period the era from 539 to 333 bce, from Cyrus until Alexander
personification representing an idea, a value, or other abstract thought as a person.
Pesah see passover
peshat (Heb “simple”) the “plain sense” or “contextual sense” of a text, often contrasted with derash, the homiletical meaning
pesher (pl. pesharim; “interpretation”) a type of commentary on the Bible in the Dead Sea Scrolls in which the biblical text is understood to be fulfilled in the interpreter’s time
Peshitta (Syriac, “simple”) the name of the Syriac translation of the Bible (called “simple” because it was a plain translation from Hebrew, not a translation with textual apparatus like the Syrohexapla). The Peshitta contains books of the Bible translated by Jews for Jewish worshipers who spoke Syriac, but it was taken over and completed (including a New Testament) by Syriac-speaking Christians.
Pharisees a Jewish sect in the first century ce, according to Josephus and the New Testament. The Pharisees were concerned to extend Jewish practice into all areas of life, and followed the tradition of interpretation (Oral Torah) associated with the schools of Hillel and Shammai. They were opponents of the more conservative Sadducees, who did not accept their traditions of oral law.
Philistines a group of the Sea Peoples, who invaded and settled in on the southeastern coast of the Mediterranean in the late second millennium bce, having been repulsed in an invasion of Egypt (ca. 1190 bce). The five major Philistine cities (the Pentapolis) were Ashkelon, Ashdod, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza.
Philo a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher and interpreter of scripture, who lived in Alexandria, Egypt, from about 20 bce to 50 ce. He wrote works in philosophy, scriptural interpretation, and history. In Philo’s view, the best insights of Greek philosophy could be found in the Bible by means of allegorical interpretation. He influenced Jewish writers like the author of the Wisdom of Solomon and Christian theologians such as Clement, Origen, and Ambrose.
Phoenicia(n) (Gk “red-purple”) the territory occupied by a Semitic group along the eastern Mediterranean coast, in an area roughly where modern Lebanon now is. The Phoenicians were seagoing and engaged in trade across a wide area; their main cities in biblical times, Tyre and Sidon, are prominent on the coast. They manufactured cloth dyed purple using a mollusk that grew along the shore (these “Tyrian purple” robes were worn by kings). The Phoenicians were also responsible for the spread westward across the Mediterranean of a form of alphabetical writing, from which all later alphabets, including Hebrew and Greek, were derived.
phylacteries (Gk phulakterion, “amulet,” from phulax, “guard”) small black leather boxes containing biblical passages (Ex 13.1–10, 13.11–16; Deut 6.4–9, 11.13–21), worn during prayer on the head and on the left arm. Also called “tefillin.”
Platonism a philosophy derived from the teaching of Plato, saying that there is a profound difference, even an opposition, between the realm of matter and the realm of spirit, and that the world of sense experience is essentially an illusion, deriving what reality it has from a correspondence with a true, ultimately real world of Forms
pogrom an officially encouraged, organized massacre of a minority group
polemic, polemical (Gk polemos, “war”) an argument or debate in the form of an attack on one’s opponent or on the opposing position. Polemical speech is characterized by verbal attacks, exaggerated language, and sometimes violent imagery
Polycarp, Letter of an early second-century ce Christian letter of instruction, written by Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, and addressed to the church of Philippi
potsherd a broken piece of pottery. Examination of such pieces allows archaeologists to date the different levels of a site according to the type of pottery represented at a given level.
prescript (epistolary) see epistolary prescript
priest, high priest in the Hebrew Bible, the priest (Heb kohen) was the official set apart to preside at the worship in the Temple, particularly to offer sacrifices of various kinds. In the NT the term “priest” (primarily hiereus) is applied only to the Jewish priesthood of the Temple (archiereus, “high priest,” “chief priest,” e.g. Mt 2.4); a pagan priest (Acts 14.13); Melchizedek (e.g., Heb 7.1); Jesus Christ (Heb 10.21); or the whole of the Christian people (“priesthood,” 1 Pet 2.5; “priests,” Rev 1.6). The Gk term presbyteros, from which the English word “priest” is derived, means “elder” and is so translated in the NRSV (e.g., Jas 5.14; 2 John 1.1).
primogeniture the social tradition by which the eldest son inherits a father’s title or the bulk of the father’s property
proem a short introduction or preface to a literary text
Promised Land a conventional term for the Land of Israel, as it was promised to Abraham and to the descendants of Abraham (“this land that I have promised,” Ex 32.13)
prophecy, prophesy the name for a prophetic utterance is “prophecy” (pronounced prah-feh-see, rhyming with “fee”); the activity of a prophet is to “prophesy” (pronounced prah-feh-sye, rhyming with “high”)
prophet (Gk prophetes, “speak out” or “speak forth”) the Septuagint translation of nabi’ (“one who is called”), the standard Heb term for prophet. Synonyms include “seer,” “man of God,” and “visionary.”
prophetic lawsuit (Heb rib) a literary form in the prophets and elsewhere in which the people are accused of breaking their covenant with God
proselyte (Gk “come toward”) one who has adopted a religion or belief system, often after leaving a previous religion; a convert
protreptic (Gk “turn toward, turn forward to”) speech promoting a particular view; exhortation, persuasion
pseudepigrapha (Gk “writings with false attributions of authorship”) a diverse group of Jewish or Christian religious writings attributed to notable biblical persons that are not included in the books of the Hebrew Bible, the New Testament, or the Apocrypha. These writings date from about 250 bce to 200 ce, and some of them are quoted from or alluded to in the Bible.
pseudonymous written or published under a false name. Pseudonymous writing in antiquity is often attributed to someone much better known than the actual writer, in order to give the text the benefit of the presumed authority of the famous person.
Ptolemies the rulers of Egypt and its surrounding areas after the breakup of the Greek empire of Alexander the Great, following his death in 323
Purim the festival that commemorates the delivery of the Jews in Persia from destruction, as recounted in the book of Esther
Q
Q see synoptic problem
qeri (“what is read”) in the Masoretic text, a word as it should be pronounced, in contrast to what is written (ketib) in the main text
qinah meter a metrical pattern consisting of a line with three stresses followed by a line with two stresses; it is primarily used in psalms of lament or complaint, and in the book of Lamentations.
Qumran community the settlement near Wadi Qumran at the Dead Sea, most likely composed of Essenes. The Qumran group was a sectarian Jewish community that kept its own practices in opposition to the established community in Jerusalem and Judea; the library of this group was discovered beginning in 1947 and is known as the Dead Sea Scrolls.
R
rabbi (Aram. “teacher”) a Jewish religious leader who studies the Torah and its associated commentaries, particularly the Talmud, and offers his own teaching based on that study
rapture the doctrine, based on an interpretation of 1 Thess 4.13–18, that when Jesus Christ returns in the parousia (see) those Christians who have not yet died will be “caught up” along with Christ and those who, having died, are raised from the dead. In its context, the passage is intended not as a literal description of events at the return of Christ, but as a reassurance that both those still living and those already dead would be reunited with Christ.
reader-response criticism analyzing a text by looking at the relationship between the text and its reader, including the clues within the text that guide the reader in drawing meaning from it
redaction criticism the study of how already existing textual units—narratives of incidents, laws, proverbs, or other isolatable pieces that can be disentangled by source criticism—were combined into larger texts by the activities of editors, called “redactors”
redactor an editor who works with already existing units to combine them into larger wholes
resident alien a foreigner with legal rights living in Israel or an Israelite residing in the territory of another tribe
revelation (Latin “remove the veil,” translating Greek apokalypsis) belief or insight granted to a human being by a deity or heavenly being
rhetoric (Gk rhetor, “speaker, orator”) the art or study of persuasive speech or writing
Rift Valley a major cleft or depression that extends from southeastern Turkey to East Africa, and at the point of the Dead Sea is the lowest place on the land mass of Earth
Ritual Decalogue a term for the commandments in Ex 34.10–28, in some cases paralleling those of the Decalogue (Ex 20.1–17) but mostly dealing with matters of worship or other religious observance, such as the offering of firstborn livestock or the observance of festivals
Roman Period the period of Roman ruke in Judea, beginning in 63 bce
romance a popular storytelling technique in the ancient Mediterranean world that recounted the situation of young lovers and how they overcome obstacles to their marriage. In early Christianity the form was modified to tell the stories of early converts and martyrs and the obstacles to their faith.
Rule of the Community one of the Dead Sea scrolls (1QS) that sets out the arrangements under which the community functioned and those that they held up as an ideal: holding property in common; eating, blessing, and advising one another in unity; preparing for the end time; and training new members of the community in their responsibilities.
S
sackcloth rough cloth, often made from animal hair. A garment made of sackcloth is uncomfortable and is worn to indicate penitence or grief.
Sadducees a Jewish sect in the first century ce, according to Josephus and the New Testament. They held to a strict application of Torah and to maintaining Temple worship according to its mandate. They were opposed to the Pharisees in not accepting the traditions of oral law, and they were also opposed to the political activists who wished to rebel against Roman rule, fearing that any rebellion would bring an end to the limited autonomy under which they could maintain Temple worship.
saga popular narrative account of prehistory or events of the distant past. Sagas often involve stories of the ancestors of a group or the founders of a country.
saint(s) (Lat “holy one[s]”) in the NT, the term for all Christians (2 Cor 1.1), or for what all Christians are “called” to be (Rom 1.7, 1 Cor 1.2)
Samaritan Pentateuch a Hebrew text of the first five books of the Bible used by the Samaritans. This text differs from the Masoretic Text at many points. Some of these disagreements reflect Samaritan beliefs, but others are supported by the Dead Sea Scrolls and reflect an alternate textual tradition.
Samaritans the descendants of the population of Samaria (the capital of the Northern Kingdom of Israel) after the Assyrían invasion of that kingdom and the deportation of its inhabitants in 722 bce. The Samaritans regard themselves as descended from the Jewish remnant after the deportation, but the returning exiles from the Southern Kingdom of Judah (after the Babylonian exile in the early sixth century) did not regard them as Jews, seeing them rather as descendants of foreigners who had been settled there after the Jewish population had been removed. Therefore, beginning with Ezra and Nehemiah, the leadership forbade intermarriage between Samaritans and Jews. The Samaritans maintained worship (with a temple on Mount Gerizim) and the Pentateuch (but not the rest of the Bible), although their calendar is not the same as the Jewish calendar.
Sanhedrin (ultimately from Gk synedria from syn- and hedra, “with seat,” i.e., “council”) the religious court, whose membership was drawn from the Jewish ruling classes, that held ruling authority over the territory of Palestine under the Roman empire. The Sanhedrin was responsible for census-taking and taxation as well as for acting as a court that would decide cases on its own and also, after preliminary determination, send cases on to the Roman governors. “Sanhedrin” is also the title of a tractate of the Mishnah dealing with law courts in general.
Satan (Heb “adversary, accuser”) the Satan (a title, not a name) in Job 1.6–12, 2.1–7 is a member of the divine council who serves as a prosecutor or tester of God’s faithful (see also Zech 3.1). In the Gospels Satan serves as the chief tempter and head of the demonic realm (Mt 4.1–11; 12.26); in the book of Revelation Satan is identified with the serpent, the dragon, and the devil (12.9; 20.2).
school of prophets term for the followers of a prophet, who preserved the prophet’s words and, it is presumed, applied them to new situations as they arose
scribe in general, one who could write, especially official documents, and take down dictation for letters, legal proceedings, etc. In the New Testament, a scribe was a lawyer, one who was expert in the requirements and meaning of Jewish law, especially the Torah.
scroll a long strip of parchment (treated leather) or papyrus (reeds split, moistened, and pressed together), on which a text was written in columns. The scroll was read by unrolling one side while rolling up the other, to expose successive columns of text. Besides the literal meaning, scrolls stand for the message or teaching of God that a prophet has internalized and will then deliver to the intended hearers. Jeremiah (15.16) eats the words of God, and following him Ezekiel (3.3) eats a scroll. The message of God in the book of Revelation (5.1ff.) is expressed in stages as the seals on a scroll are broken open.
Sea Peoples remnants of the Mycenean or Aegean civilizations, which collapsed toward the end of the second millennium bce. Some of these people sailed eastward on the Mediterranean and attacked those living along the coast; they were repulsed from Egypt and settled in southwest Canaan. The biblical Philistines are among the Sea Peoples.
Second Coming the return of a glorified Christ to Earth in judgment and redemption. See parousia.
Second Isaiah, also Deutero-Isaiah, the general term for chs 40–55 of the book of Isaiah. These chs are primarily concerned with the events leading up to the decree of the Persian king Cyrus in 538 bce permitting the exiles to return to Judah from Babylon and rebuild Jerusalem and the Temple. See also Third Isaiah.
Second Temple the Temple constructed beginning ca. 515 bce by the returning exiles, and continued and expanded over the course of time, until its destruction by the Romans in 70 ce
sect a religious grouping that emphasizes strict adherence to particular teachings and excludes those who do not conform
seder (Heb “order”) the ritual meal and recitation of Passover. Also, the major divisions of the Mishnah (pl. sedarim).
Seleucids the rulers of Syria and its surrounding areas after the breakup of the Greek empire of Alexander the Great, following his death, The Seleucid ruler Antiochus IV “Epiphanes” desecrated the Temple in 167 bce, leading to the Maccabean revolt and the rededication of the Temple in 164 bce, an event commemorated in the festival of Hanukkah.
Septuagint the ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures. The Septuagint was translated over a lengthy period beginning probably in the third century bce. Traditionally there were 72 translators, a number that was rounded off to 70 and, in Roman numerals, used as the abbreviation for this translation (LXX). The Septuagint was prepared for the use of Jews who lived in the Diaspora whose main language was Greek. It is important for several reasons: it translated a version of the Hebrew text that is older than the Masoretic text; it contains additional works, grouped in NRSV as the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books, most of which were originally written in Greek; and it was the Old Testament of early Christians.
Shavuot see festival of weeks
Shema the first word, used as a title, of the exhortation “Hear, O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord alone” (Deut. 6.4), also the name of perhaps the most important and best-known prayer in Judaism, comprised of Deut. 6.4–9; 11.13–21; and Num. 15.37–41.
Sheol the underworld or abode of the dead
Shephelah the foothills leading to the central hill country of the land of Israel
shofar, also shophar the ram’s horn for ceremonial use. In ancient Israel it was sounded to announce the anointing of a king or as a summons to war or to sound an alarm; today, in the synagogue, it is sounded on the High Holy Days.
signet ring a ring bearing a personal seal, used to make an indentation in clay as a sign of authenticity of authorship
simile a comparison, using “like” or “as” rather than, as in metaphor, linking two things directly
Sinai properly, the name of a peninsula bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea, on the east by the Gulf of Aqaba, and on the west by the Gulf of Suez. Traditionally the mountain of Sinai, purportedly the location where Moses received the Decalogue, is on this peninsula, but no mountain has been definitively identified as the biblical Sinai. See also Horeb.
Sitz im Leben (German, “setting in life”) in form criticism, the original context in which a specific genre or form was used
sorites a philosophical argument in the form of linked propositions. The second part of each proposition forms the first part of the next, and the series therefore becomes an extended chain of reasoning
source criticism the effort to discover the sources or documents behind a text and to explore how the sources were combined into larger units. See Documentary Hypothesis.
Southern Kingdom see Judah, Yehud, etc.
step parallelism a form of poetic parallelism (see) in which successive lines do not repeat or reverse the structure of the preceding line, but build on it like a set of steps: “O send out your light and your truth; / let them lead me; / let them bring me to your holy hill/and to your dwelling. / Then I will go to the altar of God, / to God my exceeding joy; / and I will praise you with the harp, / O God, my God.” (Ps 43.3–4)
Stoics Greek philosophers in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, who taught that emotions should be strictly controlled by reason
Sukkot see booths, festival of
Sumer a civilization that ruled southern Mesopotamia from the late fourth millennium to the early second millennium bce. The Sumerians developed cuneiform writing, which involved using a wedge-shaped reed to press marks into wet clay; the clay was then baked.
superscription a heading or descriptive title before the actual beginning of a text; many of the Psalms have a superscription giving a purported setting for the Psalm (e.g. Ps 3) or instructions on how it is to be performed (Ps 4).
suzerain the lord or ruler to whom loyalty is due in a covenant relationship
Symmachus a second-century ce translator of the Bible into Greek, whose translation was included in Origen’s Hexapla (a compendium of six Bible versions)
synagogue (Gk “coming together with”) an assembly; a congregation. For Jews who were too distant from the Temple to worship at it, and for all Jews after the final destruction of the Temple by the Romans in 70 ce, the synagogue became the only form of worship. Services consisted of prayer, song, and study of the sacred text.
syncretism the incorporation into one religion of practices and teachings derived from another, or the effort to combine two different religious traditions into a third, composite religion
synecdoche (Gk “understand with”) a figure of speech using a part of something to stand for the whole: in “Do not keep needy eyes waiting” (Sir 4.1) “needy eyes” stands for the whole needy person
synonymous parallelism a type of parallelism where the second line or colon of a bicolon echoes the meaning of the first in different terms.
Synoptic Gospels Matthew, Mark, and Luke. “Synoptic” means “view together,” and is applied to these writings because they, unlike John, can be readily compared.
synoptic problem the observation that in many passages Matthew and Luke repeat with only minor changes what Mark says, yet in other passages they do not follow Mark, or include stories or sayings that Mark does not have, yet match each other very closely. According to the most widely held theory, Matthew and Luke relied on Mark and on another document (now lost) that contained mostly sayings of Jesus; this second document is referred to as “Q” (from the German word “Quelle,” meaning “source”). In addition, Matthew and Luke each had their own sources.
Syriac an eastern form of Aramaic that was the language of some Jews and of some eastern Christian communities in the early centuries of the Common Era. It is the language of the Peshitta.
Syrohexapla (or Syriac hexapla) a Syriac translation of the Septuagint text that provides textual evidence about the nature of the Septuagint. Although the Hexapla was translated in the seventh century ce, it is based upon a Septuagint text dating from as early as the third century ce.
T
tabernacle the portable sanctuary used by the Israelites during their wanderings in the wilderness
tabernacles, feast of see booths, festival of
tablet a slab, typically of clay, with a smoothed surface that can be inscribed with a text
talion (Latin talio, “in kind” from talis, “like,” “such like”) a punishment that is of the same kind as the crime: exacting an equivalent penalty, such as an equal economic loss for theft, or death for murder, or “an eye for an eye.” Talion is well attested in Mesopotamian law, and in some biblical legal collections.
Talmud (Heb “teaching”) the title of the two great collections of rabbinic teaching, the Jerusalem Talmud (also called the Palestinian Talmud or the Talmud of the Land of Israel) and the Babylonian Talmud. The Talmuds were compiled beginning after 200 ce. They consist of comments on, and extensions of, the Mishnah in order to apply Jewish teaching to everyday life, but they also include information on a wide range of topics. The two centers of rabbinic study (the land of Israel and Babylonia) were in contact with each other and the commentary therefore reflected a common effort; later, especially with the completion of the Talmud in Israel (ca. 400 ce), the Babylonian effort continued to refine and extend the applications, and it was the Talmud developed in Babylonia (completion after 500 ce) that was distributed worldwide, under the auspices of the academies that continued to work in Babylon until the beginning of the second millennium ce.
Tanakh an acronym formed from the beginning letters of the three divisions of the Hebrew Bible: Torah, Nevi’im, Ketubim
Targum translation of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic. The Targums are important for textual criticism of the Hebrew text, since they provide evidence about it at a stage earlier than that of the Masoretic text.
tel (Heb), tell (Arabic) a mound formed by repeated construction, occupation, and destruction of buildings on a particular site
Temple the central place of worship for Israelite religion in Jerusalem, referring either to the First Temple or the Second Temple
teraphim a term (generally translated “household gods”) for certain cultic objects in early Israel; their nature and function is unclear, and their size seems to be varied (in Gen 31.34 Rachel can conceal Laban’s household gods by sitting on them; in 1 Sam 19.13, the “idol” is large enough to look like someone is in a bed). They may have been images of one’s ancestors. One use to which they were put may have been divination (Ezek 21.21), but how this was done is not explained.
testament (Lat “testamentum,” for Gk diatheke) a final disposition of one’s personal property, but used in LXX to translate Heb berith, “covenant,” and therefore applied to the “new covenant” or “new testament” as inaugurated by Jesus (recalling Jeremiah’s promise of a “new covenant” in 31.31–34); testament therefore came to mean the collection of writings (the Hebrew Scriptures or the Christian Scriptures) that presented the covenant of God with the people of God
Tetragrammaton (Gk “four letters”) the divine name, YHWH
Tetrateuch the first four books of the Bible, Genesis through Numbers, regarded by some scholars as an edited collection to which Deuteronomy was then attached. See Pentateuch
textual criticism the effort to establish, by scholarly assessment of manuscript copies and other sources, an accurate version of a text; also called “lower criticism”
theodicy the theological effort to justify the goodness of God in the face of suffering
Theodotion (ca. second century ce) a translator of the Hebrew Bible into Greek and reviser of the Septuagint
theophany (Gk “appearance of god”) the temporary appearance or manifestation of a divine being in a form that can be apprehended by the human senses
Third Isaiah, also Trito-Isaiah, the scholarly term for chs 56–66 of the book of Isaiah, which are primarily concerned with the life of the returned exiles in the province of Yehud (the Persian name for Judah) after 538 bce. Some scholars doubt the separate existence of Third Isaiah; others maintain that it is not the product of one author, but a collection of diverse oracles by different members of a “school of Isaiah” collected during the Persian period. See also Second Isaiah.
Thomas, Gospel of an early collection of sayings attributed to Jesus. It contains no miracle stories and no account of Jesus’ deeds, his birth, his death, or the resurrection. Some of the sayings resemble those in the canonical Gospels, but others reflect Gnosticism.
thresh to beat gathered stalks of grain in order to separate the grain from the stems and husks. A threshing floor, a flat area used for threshing grain, was often built on a hilltop to catch the breeze necessary for winnowing.
threshing floor see thresh
Tiamat goddess of the deep and mother of the Babylonian pantheon; she is sometimes portrayed as a dragon.
tithe the conventional religious due (traditionally 10 percent) of certain material goods, such as herbs (Deut 14.22; Mt 23.23); other produce, like fruit or livestock, required the donation of “first fruits” or the young that opened the womb (the firstborn kid or calf) to God (Ex 13.12)
Torah (Heb “teaching, instruction”) the first division of the Hebrew Bible, consisting of Genesis through Deuteronomy. The word (and hence the title) is sometimes translated “law,” but this translation is misleading since the five books contain much more than law codes and regulations.
tradition criticism the investigation of the development of a text from its earliest stages (oral or original source documents) to the latest (canonical) stage
Transfiguration, the conventional title for narrative (Mk 9.2–8; Mt 17.1–8; Lk 9.28–36) in which Jesus, accompanied by Peter, James, and John, ascends a mountain and appears to the disciples in dazzling white, like a vindicated martyr, in the company of Moses and Elijah (founder and renewer of Israel)
Transjordan (“across Jordan”) the region east of the Jordan River
transmission history an account, usually inferred, of how a text came down to the present from its originator. Steps in transmission history can include oral transmission, redaction, manuscript copying, and scribal emendation.
Trito-Isaiah see Third Isaiah
trope (Gk “turn [away]”) use of a word or phrase in a sense differing from its usual or literal meaning, as in a figure of speech; “a stitch in time” is not about sewing, but about the advantages of timely or early action
Twelve, Book of the the Minor Prophets
Twelve, the conventional designation for Jesus’ closest followers (Mk 3.14–16 and parallels; Mk 10.32)
typology (Gk tupos, the raised design on a seal for imprinting in wax, then by extension a pattern or model) understanding persons or events, especially in the New Testament, by referring them to earlier biblical precursors
U
Ugarit city on the Mediterranean coast (Ras-Shamra in present-day Syria), source of an important collection of Canaanite myths and other texts from the second half of the second millennium bce in a language called Ugaritic, which was related to Hebrew
Ugaritic an ancient Semitic language closely related to Hebrew, which was used at the city of Ugarit on the coast of the Mediterranean in Syria in the second millennium bce. Many Ugaritic texts have connections in style and content with the Bible.
unleavened bread (Heb matzah, pl. matzot) bread made without yeast; also the festival of unleavened bread associated with passover.
Urim and Thummim a method of divination used to discover God’s response to “yes” or “no” questions
V
vassal the underlord in a covenant relationship, who is granted power and control over people in a particular area in return for loyalty to the suzerain
Vassal Treaty of Esarhaddon an Assyrian treaty document from the reign of the Assyrian king Esarhaddon (681–669 bce), with parallels to parts of Deuteronomy
Vulgate see Jerome
W
wadi (Arabic) a stream bed or valley that is dry for part of the year; an arroyo or gulch
weeks, festival of (Heb Shavuot; “Pentecost,” Gk for “fiftieth” [day]) the spring harvest, occurring according to Priestly texts fifty days (seven full weeks) after Passover
winnow to separate grain from its husks (called chaff) after it has been threshed. The threshed grain is placed in a wide, flat basket and tossed repeatedly into the air, allowing a breeze to blow away the lighter chaff while the grain drops back down into the basket.
wisdom literature Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes in the Hebrew Bible, Sirach and Wisdom in the Apocrypha, and some Psalms. Wisdom literature is concerned with insight, instruction, meditation of the meaning of life, and moral exhortation. It does not generally concern itself with key events in Israel’s history, such as the Exodus; central teachings, such as the covenant; or focal institutions, such as the Davidic monarchy, prophecy, or the Temple.
Writings the third division of the Hebrew Bible
Y
Yahweh see YHWH
Yahwistic characteristic of the religion of the worship of YHWH or of the teachings, Temple practices, etc., in the Pentateuch
Yehud designation of the province of Judah during Persian times; see Judah
YHWH (sometimes also YHVH) the name of God, which in Jewish tradition is conventionally unpronounced; moden scholars use the conventional pronunciation “Yahweh.” The name is represented in the Masoretic text by the Hebrew letters yod-he-vav-he and the vowels for the title Adonai, “my Lord.” In most English translations, following an ancient substitution, YHWH is represented by the word Lord written in capital and small capital letters. The original vocalization and meaning of the name YHWH is uncertain, though it is connected to the verb h-y-h, “be” or “become,” most likely in a causative sense, “he who causes to be.”
Yom Kippur see Day of Atonement
Z
Zadokites priests purportedly descended from Zadok, one of David’s chief priests and the only chief priest under Solomon, who anointed Solomon king (1 Kings 1). Zadok was descended from Aaron (1 Chr 6). Ezekiel’s vision of the restored Temple explicitly maintains that Zadokites will be the priests, differentiated from Levites (Ezek 48.11). The Qumran community wanted to restore the Zadokite priesthood; Zadok may also be the source of the name Sadducees, those who supported the religio-political elite centered on the Jerusalem Temple under the Roman occupation. See also Aaron.
Zealot a member of a Jewish revolutionary movement during the Roman occupation of Palestine in the first century ce
ziggurat a temple-tower in ancient Mesopotamia. Ziggurats are presumed to represent a mount, on the top of which the earthly and divine realms merged.
Zion the name of the fortified hill within Jerusalem and thus, by extension, an alternative name for Jerusalem itself, especially in biblical poetry
Zion theology a name for the view that God’s ultimate plan for Israel is restoration of the monarchy under a Davidic king who rules from Jerusalem