Exodus

Name

The English name “Exodus,” which derives from a Latinized abbreviation of the Greek title exodos aigyptou (“exit from Egypt”), highlights the storyline of the first third of the book. In keeping with the ancient practice of naming books after their opening words, the main Hebrew title is Shemot (“names”), taken from the book’s beginning (“These are the names”).

Canonical Status and Location

The second book of the Bible in all canonical traditions, Exodus is not an independent work but rather is an integral part of the Torah, or Pentateuch. Its opening verses connect it to Gen 46.8–27; and it closes with the completion of the tabernacle, the wilderness shrine that prefigures the Temple as a dwelling for the divine presence. Details of worship at that shrine dominate the next book, Leviticus; and Numbers and Deuteronomy continue the journey narrative.

Authorship

Authorship is traditionally ascribed to Moses, in part based on passages such as 24.4 and 34.27. Modern biblical scholarship, however, has noted many problems with the view that Moses wrote the entire Torah, including Exodus. Like the rest of the Pentateuch, Exodus contains contradictions and redundancies. For example, Moses’s father‐in‐law is sometimes called Reuel and sometimes Jethro; and the mountain of revelation is Sinai in some passages and Horeb in others. The narratives of Moses on the mountain in chs 19 and 24 have many overlapping and conflicting details, as does the account of the calamities—called “ten plagues” in postbiblical tradition but not in the Bible—against the Egyptians in 7.8–10.29. Differences in vocabulary, style, and ideas are also evident. Thus Exodus is best understood as a composite of streams of traditions shaped over many centuries by an unknown number of anonymous storytellers and writers. Eventually those traditions—often labeled J, E, D, and P according to critical biblical scholarship—were skillfully combined into the present canonical book by one or more redactors or editors who accepted these multiple traditions as valid. The redactor(s) or editor(s) can be credited with the overall interweaving of disparate materials—narratives, legal texts, priestly records, lists, and one long poem. Redaction also introduced or maintained patterns, such as the repetition of a thematic word or phrase a symbolic number of times (usually seven or ten) in a literary unit (see, e.g., 4.21n.; 5.1n.; 18.26n.; 40.16n.), and also the triadic arrangement of the account of the nine marvels (see 7.8–10.29n.).

Historical Context

The diverse materials in Exodus are situated within a story line describing the departure of a group of oppressed people from Egypt to a sacred mountain in Sinai where they enter into a covenant with the God they believed rescued them; then, at that God’s direction, they construct a portable shrine for their deity before continuing their journey. The historicity of that story has been questioned, partly because the literary strands comprising Exodus date from many centuries after the events they purport to describe. The events themselves, which involve the escape of a component of Pharaoh’s workforce, the disruption of Egyptian agriculture, and the loss of many Egyptian lives, are not mentioned in Egyptian sources (although the Egyptians would not necessarily record such events). Similarly, the larger‐than‐life leader Moses is not mentioned in contemporaneous nonbiblical sources; and no trace of a large group of people moving across the Sinai Peninsula has been found by archaeological surveys or excavations. In addition, features of the story—such as the signs and wonders performed in Egypt, the exceedingly large number of people said to have left Egypt (see 12.37n.), and the huge quantities of precious metals (e.g., ca. 2,482 pounds of gold; see 38.24) used to construct the tabernacle and other ritual objects—defy credibility. Virtually none of the places mentioned in Exodus, including the holy mountain, can be identified with sites discovered in Sinai or with names known from other sources (see 12.37n.; 19.1n.). Finally, the Exodus story culminates in the book of Joshua, with the conquest of the land of Israel; here too the archaeological record does not corroborate the main biblical narrative.

Despite these problems, the basic story line about the departure from Egypt fits broad evidence from Egyptian and other sources. Foreigners from western Asia, called “Asiatics” in Egyptian documents, periodically did migrate to Egypt, especially during times of famine (see Gen 12.10; 41.57; 43.1–2); others were taken to Egypt as military captives or were forcibly sent there as human tribute by Canaanite rulers. Moreover, many such groups, including those who voluntarily entered Egypt, were conscripted for state projects (see Ex 1.11–14). This pattern was especially strong toward the end of the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1400–1200 bce). And, although virtually all of the foreigners in Egypt were assimilated into local culture, there is at least one documented instance of several workers escaping into the Sinai wilderness. Thus the overall pattern of descent into Egypt followed by servitude and escape accords with general information in ancient documents. In addition, the end of the Late Bronze Age, by which time the Israelites would have left Egypt, coincides with the date of inscriptional evidence—a stele erected by Pharaoh Merneptah in ca. 1209 bce—for a people called “Israel” in the land of Canaan, the first mention of Israel outside the Bible.

A plausible reconstruction is that a relatively small group of people, descendants of western Asiatics who had entered Egypt generations before, managed to escape from servitude. So improbable was such an event that the people, or their leader, attributed it to miraculous divine intervention. This experience bonded them in their loyalty to that deity and gave them a collective identity. This story was originally oral and developed like other oral tales. Upon entering Canaan, they told their story and spread word about their unusual saving God, Yahweh, a name perhaps learned from Midianites with whom they interacted (see 3.15n.). Their stories about securing freedom are collective memories meant to re‐create for others the intense emotional experience of liberation rather than to record accurate details of their escape. As time passed, major features of Israelite culture—such as the main agricultural festivals (especially passover), the custom of redeeming firstborn males, the idea of a people in a covenant relationship with God, prophets as transmitters of God’s word, the sabbath, the construction of a central shrine as God’s earthly abode, a sacrificial system administered by priests—were assimilated into the core Exodus narrative, which gave them emotional power and authority (see 11.1–13.16n.). This commemoration of the past makes the experience of a few the collective story, the very identity, of the community taking shape and expanding in the highlands of Canaan and later struggling to survive the traumas of division and exile.

Literary History

The components of the book of Exodus have been so skillfully woven together that it often is not possible to reconstruct the process by which they emerged and were ultimately combined. The overall story comprises several traditions, perhaps related to the southern (Judean) J and northern (Israelite) E posited by biblical scholarship, that arose during the monarchic period, with the long poem of ch 15 likely an independent composition predating the narrative strands. Deuteronomic elements (D, usually linked to late monarchic developments) can also be identified; it is even possible that all three streams of tradition drew from a core commemorative account but developed it in their own particular ways. A strong P (Priestly) component is also present at the end of the book, in the passages dealing with the sanctuary, priests, and rituals, and in several points of the earlier story line, notably in the accounts of the marvels in Egypt and the deliverance at the sea. The final redaction reflects Priestly emphases of the sixth century bce or later but also preserves ritual and ceremonial practices many centuries older.

Structure

The book can be subdivided into thematic and literary units in various ways; this one positions the revelation at Sinai and the covenant in the center:

Part I: Israel in and out of Egypt (1.1–15.21): God sees Israelite suffering in Egypt (chs 1–2), Moses becomes God’s spokesperson (3.1–7.7), and a series of calamities (7.7–13.16), known in tradition as the “ten plagues,” culminate in the escape of the people (13.17–15.21).

Part II: Sinai and covenant (15.22–24.18): After traveling through the wilderness (15.22–18.27), the Israelites reach Mount Sinai, where they experience a theophany (a divine appearance, chs 19, 24), and receive the covenant (chs 20–23).

Part III: Sanctuary and new covenant (25:1–40:34): An episode of apostasy followed by covenant renewal (chs 32–34) separates instructions for building the sanctuary (chs 25–31) from the account of its construction (chs 35–40).

Interpretation

Exodus is arguably the most important book in the Hebrew Bible. It contains an explanation of God’s name YHWH and also fundamental biblical ideas about God, especially that God responds to and saves people who are suffering or oppressed. Major institutions of ancient Israel—such as prophecy, covenant, community regulations, a central shrine, festivals, sacrifice, and the sabbath—are grounded in the narrative of liberation. The Exodus story likely struck a resonant chord for Judeans experiencing defeat and exile in the sixth century bce and later; for them, maintaining or restoring the institutions set forth in Exodus contributed to their emerging identity and to their very survival as a dispersed people. A similar dynamic is true for subsequent Jewish history. Although the institutions of Exodus played a lesser role in Christian tradition, the concept of divine self‐revelation as manifest in Jesus Christ is rooted in the prominence of God’s self‐revelation in Exodus; and the story of suffering leading to redemption shapes key Christian beliefs. For both Jews and Christians, identification with the suffering in Egypt contributes to the moral imperative to alleviate the suffering of others. As a story of liberation, Exodus has infused hope into many peoples. Despite its many positive features, however, some aspects of Exodus—such as the loss of innocent Egyptian lives and the investment of community resources in an elaborate shrine—continue to trouble readers.

Carol Meyers

¹ These are the names of the sons of Israel who came to Egypt with Jacob, each with his household: ²Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah, ³Issachar, Zebulun, and Benjamin, ⁴Dan and Naphtali, Gad and Asher. ⁵The total number of people born to Jacob was seventy. Joseph was already in Egypt. ⁶Then Joseph died, and all his brothers, and that whole generation. ⁷But the Israelites were fruitful and prolific; they multiplied and grew exceedingly strong, so that the land was filled with them.

⁸Now a new king arose over Egypt, who did not know Joseph. ⁹He said to his people, “Look, the Israelite people are more numerous and more powerful than we. ¹⁰Come, let us deal shrewdly with them, or they will increase and, in the event of war, join our enemies and fight against us and escape from the land.” ¹¹Therefore they set taskmasters over them to oppress them with forced labor. They built supply cities, Pithom and Rameses, for Pharaoh. ¹²But the more they were oppressed, the more they multiplied and spread, so that the Egyptians came to dread the Israelites. ¹³The Egyptians became ruthless in imposing tasks on the Israelites, ¹⁴and made their lives bitter with hard service in mortar and brick and in every kind of field labor. They were ruthless in all the tasks that they imposed on them.

¹⁵The king of Egypt said to the Hebrew midwives, one of whom was named Shiphrah and the other Puah, ¹⁶“When you act as midwives to the Hebrew women, and see them on the birthstool, if it is a boy, kill him; but if it is a girl, she shall live.” ¹⁷But the midwives feared God; they did not do as the king of Egypt commanded them, but they let the boys live. ¹⁸So the king of Egypt summoned the midwives and said to them, “Why have you done this, and allowed the boys to live?” ¹⁹The midwives said to Pharaoh, “Because the Hebrew women are not like the Egyptian women; for they are vigorous and give birth before the midwife comes to them.” ²⁰So God dealt well with the midwives; and the people multiplied and became very strong. ²¹And because the midwives feared God, he gave them families. ²²Then Pharaoh commanded all his people, “Every boy that is born to the Hebrews^a you shall throw into the Nile, but you shall let every girl live.”

² Now a man from the house of Levi went and married a Levite woman. ²The woman conceived and bore a son; and when she saw that he was a fine baby, she hid him three months. ³When she could hide him no longer she got a papyrus basket for him, and plastered it with bitumen and pitch; she put the child in it and placed it among the reeds on the bank of the river. ⁴His sister stood at a distance, to see what would happen to him.

⁵The daughter of Pharaoh came down to bathe at the river, while her attendants walked beside the river. She saw the basket among the reeds and sent her maid to bring it. ⁶When she opened it, she saw the child. He was crying, and she took pity on him. “This must be one of the Hebrews’ children,” she said. ⁷Then his sister said to Pharaoh’s daughter, “Shall I go and get you a nurse from the Hebrew women to nurse the child for you?” ⁸Pharaoh’s daughter said to her, “Yes.” So the girl went and called the child’s mother. ⁹Pharaoh’s daughter said to her, “Take this child and nurse it for me, and I will give you your wages.” So the woman took the child and nursed it. ¹⁰When the child grew up, she brought him to Pharaoh’s daughter, and she took him as her son. She named him Moses,^a “because,” she said, “I drew him out^b of the water.”

¹¹One day, after Moses had grown up, he went out to his people and saw their forced labor. He saw an Egyptian beating a Hebrew, one of his kinsfolk. ¹²He looked this way and that, and seeing no one he killed the Egyptian and hid him in the sand. ¹³When he went out the next day, he saw two Hebrews fighting; and he said to the one who was in the wrong, “Why do you strike your fellow Hebrew?” ¹⁴He answered, “Who made you a ruler and judge over us? Do you mean to kill me as you killed the Egyptian?” Then Moses was afraid and thought, “Surely the thing is known.” ¹⁵When Pharaoh heard of it, he sought to kill Moses.

But Moses fled from Pharaoh. He settled in the land of Midian, and sat down by a well. ¹⁶The priest of Midian had seven daughters. They came to draw water, and filled the troughs to water their father’s flock. ¹⁷But some shepherds came and drove them away. Moses got up and came to their defense and watered their flock. ¹⁸When they returned to their father Reuel, he said, “How is it that you have come back so soon today?” ¹⁹They said, “An Egyptian helped us against the shepherds; he even drew water for us and watered the flock.” ²⁰He said to his daughters, “Where is he? Why did you leave the man? Invite him to break bread.” ²¹Moses agreed to stay with the man, and he gave Moses his daughter Zipporah in marriage. ²²She bore a son, and he named him Gershom; for he said, “I have been an alien^c residing in a foreign land.”

²³After a long time the king of Egypt died. The Israelites groaned under their slavery, and cried out. Out of the slavery their cry for help rose up to God. ²⁴God heard their groaning, and God remembered his covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. ²⁵God looked upon the Israelites, and God took notice of them.

³ Moses was keeping the flock of his father‐in‐law Jethro, the priest of Midian; he led his flock beyond the wilderness, and came to Horeb, the mountain of God. ²There the angel of the Lord appeared to him in a flame of fire out of a bush; he looked, and the bush was blazing, yet it was not consumed. ³Then Moses said, “I must turn aside and look at this great sight, and see why the bush is not burned up.” ⁴When the Lord saw that he had turned aside to see, God called to him out of the bush, “Moses, Moses!” And he said, “Here I am.” ⁵Then he said, “Come no closer! Remove the sandals from your feet, for the place on which you are standing is holy ground.” ⁶He said further, “I am the God of your father, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob.” And Moses hid his face, for he was afraid to look at God.

⁷Then the Lord said, “I have observed the misery of my people who are in Egypt; I have heard their cry on account of their taskmasters. Indeed, I know their sufferings, ⁸and I have come down to deliver them from the Egyptians, and to bring them up out of that land to a good and broad land, a land flowing with milk and honey, to the country of the Canaanites, the Hittites, the Amorites, the Perizzites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites. ⁹The cry of the Israelites has now come to me; I have also seen how the Egyptians oppress them. ¹⁰So come, I will send you to Pharaoh to bring my people, the Israelites, out of Egypt.” ¹¹But Moses said to God, “Who am I that I should go to Pharaoh, and bring the Israelites out of Egypt?” ¹²He said, “I will be with you; and this shall be the sign for you that it is I who sent you: when you have brought the people out of Egypt, you shall worship God on this mountain.”

¹³But Moses said to God, “If I come to the Israelites and say to them, ‘The God of your ancestors has sent me to you,’ and they ask me, ‘What is his name?’ what shall I say to them?” ¹⁴God said to Moses, “I am who I am.”^a He said further, “Thus you shall say to the Israelites, ‘I am has sent me to you.’” ¹⁵God also said to Moses, “Thus you shall say to the Israelites, ‘The Lord,^a the God of your ancestors, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob, has sent me to you’:

This is my name forever,

and this my title for all generations.

¹⁶Go and assemble the elders of Israel, and say to them, ‘The Lord, the God of your ancestors, the God of Abraham, of Isaac, and of Jacob, has appeared to me, saying: I have given heed to you and to what has been done to you in Egypt. ¹⁷I declare that I will bring you up out of the misery of Egypt, to the land of the Canaanites, the Hittites, the Amorites, the Perizzites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites, a land flowing with milk and honey.’ ¹⁸They will listen to your voice; and you and the elders of Israel shall go to the king of Egypt and say to him, ‘The Lord, the God of the Hebrews, has met with us; let us now go a three days’ journey into the wilderness, so that we may sacrifice to the Lord our God.’ ¹⁹I know, however, that the king of Egypt will not let you go unless compelled by a mighty hand.^{b 20}So I will stretch out my hand and strike Egypt with all my wonders that I will perform in it; after that he will let you go. ²¹I will bring this people into such favor with the Egyptians that, when you go, you will not go empty‐handed; ²²each woman shall ask her neighbor and any woman living in the neighbor’s house for jewelry of silver and of gold, and clothing, and you shall put them on your sons and on your daughters; and so you shall plunder the Egyptians.”

⁴ Then Moses answered, “But suppose they do not believe me or listen to me, but say, ‘The Lord did not appear to you.’” ²The Lord said to him, “What is that in your hand?” He said, “A staff.” ³And he said, “Throw it on the ground.” So he threw the staff on the ground, and it became a snake; and Moses drew back from it. ⁴Then the Lord said to Moses, “Reach out your hand, and seize it by the tail”—so he reached out his hand and grasped it, and it became a staff in his hand— ⁵“so that they may believe that the Lord, the God of their ancestors, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob, has appeared to you.”

⁶Again, the Lord said to him, “Put your hand inside your cloak.” He put his hand into his cloak; and when he took it out, his hand was leprous,^c as white as snow. ⁷Then God said, “Put your hand back into your cloak”—so he put his hand back into his cloak, and when he took it out, it was restored like the rest of his body— ⁸“If they will not believe you or heed the first sign, they may believe the second sign. ⁹If they will not believe even these two signs or heed you, you shall take some water from the Nile and pour it on the dry ground; and the water that you shall take from the Nile will become blood on the dry ground.”

¹⁰But Moses said to the Lord, “O my Lord, I have never been eloquent, neither in the past nor even now that you have spoken to your servant; but I am slow of speech and slow of tongue.” ¹¹Then the Lord said to him, “Who gives speech to mortals? Who makes them mute or deaf, seeing or blind? Is it not I, the Lord? ¹²Now go, and I will be with your mouth and teach you what you are to speak.” ¹³But he said, “O my Lord, please send someone else.” ¹⁴Then the anger of the Lord was kindled against Moses and he said, “What of your brother Aaron the Levite? I know that he can speak fluently; even now he is coming out to meet you, and when he sees you his heart will be glad. ¹⁵You shall speak to him and put the words in his mouth; and I will be with your mouth and with his mouth, and will teach you what you shall do. ¹⁶He indeed shall speak for you to the people; he shall serve as a mouth for you, and you shall serve as God for him. ¹⁷Take in your hand this staff, with which you shall perform the signs.”

¹⁸Moses went back to his father‐in‐law Jethro and said to him, “Please let me go back to my kindred in Egypt and see whether they are still living.” And Jethro said to Moses, “Go in peace.” ¹⁹The Lord said to Moses in Midian, “Go back to Egypt; for all those who were seeking your life are dead.” ²⁰So Moses took his wife and his sons, put them on a donkey, and went back to the land of Egypt; and Moses carried the staff of God in his hand.

²¹And the Lord said to Moses, “When you go back to Egypt, see that you perform before Pharaoh all the wonders that I have put in your power; but I will harden his heart, so that he will not let the people go. ²²Then you shall say to Pharaoh, ‘Thus says the Lord: Israel is my firstborn son. ²³I said to you, “Let my son go that he may worship me.” But you refused to let him go; now I will kill your firstborn son.’”

²⁴On the way, at a place where they spent the night, the Lord met him and tried to kill him. ²⁵But Zipporah took a flint and cut off her son’s foreskin, and touched Moses’^a feet with it, and said, “Truly you are a bridegroom of blood to me!” ²⁶So he let him alone. It was then she said, “A bridegroom of blood by circumcision.”

²⁷The Lord said to Aaron, “Go into the wilderness to meet Moses.” So he went; and he met him at the mountain of God and kissed him. ²⁸Moses told Aaron all the words of the Lord with which he had sent him, and all the signs with which he had charged him. ²⁹Then Moses and Aaron went and assembled all the elders of the Israelites. ³⁰Aaron spoke all the words that the Lord had spoken to Moses, and performed the signs in the sight of the people. ³¹The people believed; and when they heard that the Lord had given heed to the Israelites and that he had seen their misery, they bowed down and worshiped.

⁵ Afterward Moses and Aaron went to Pharaoh and said, “Thus says the Lord, the God of Israel, ‘Let my people go, so that they may celebrate a festival to me in the wilderness.’” ²But Pharaoh said, “Who is the Lord, that I should heed him and let Israel go? I do not know the Lord, and I will not let Israel go.” ³Then they said, “The God of the Hebrews has revealed himself to us; let us go a three days’ journey into the wilderness to sacrifice to the Lord our God, or he will fall upon us with pestilence or sword.” ⁴But the king of Egypt said to them, “Moses and Aaron, why are you taking the people away from their work? Get to your labors!” ⁵Pharaoh continued, “Now they are more numerous than the people of the land^a and yet you want them to stop working!” ⁶That same day Pharaoh commanded the taskmasters of the people, as well as their supervisors, ⁷“You shall no longer give the people straw to make bricks, as before; let them go and gather straw for themselves. ⁸But you shall require of them the same quantity of bricks as they have made previously; do not diminish it, for they are lazy; that is why they cry, ‘Let us go and offer sacrifice to our God.’ ⁹Let heavier work be laid on them; then they will labor at it and pay no attention to deceptive words.”

¹⁰So the taskmasters and the supervisors of the people went out and said to the people, “Thus says Pharaoh, ‘I will not give you straw. ¹¹Go and get straw yourselves, wherever you can find it; but your work will not be lessened in the least.’” ¹²So the people scattered throughout the land of Egypt, to gather stubble for straw. ¹³The taskmasters were urgent, saying, “Complete your work, the same daily assignment as when you were given straw.” ¹⁴And the supervisors of the Israelites, whom Pharaoh’s taskmasters had set over them, were beaten, and were asked, “Why did you not finish the required quantity of bricks yesterday and today, as you did before?”

¹⁵Then the Israelite supervisors came to Pharaoh and cried, “Why do you treat your servants like this? ¹⁶No straw is given to your servants, yet they say to us, ‘Make bricks!’ Look how your servants are beaten! You are unjust to your own people.”^{b 17}He said, “You are lazy, lazy; that is why you say, ‘Let us go and sacrifice to the Lord.’ ¹⁸Go now, and work; for no straw shall be given you, but you shall still deliver the same number of bricks.” ¹⁹The Israelite supervisors saw that they were in trouble when they were told, “You shall not lessen your daily number of bricks.” ²⁰As they left Pharaoh, they came upon Moses and Aaron who were waiting to meet them. ²¹They said to them, “The Lord look upon you and judge! You have brought us into bad odor with Pharaoh and his officials, and have put a sword in their hand to kill us.”

²²Then Moses turned again to the Lord and said, “O Lord, why have you mistreated this people? Why did you ever send me? ²³Since I first came to Pharaoh to speak in your name, he has mistreated this people, and you have done nothing at all to deliver your people.”

⁶ Then the Lord said to Moses, “Now you shall see what I will do to Pharaoh: Indeed, by a mighty hand he will let them go; by a mighty hand he will drive them out of his land.”

²God also spoke to Moses and said to him: “I am the Lord. ³I appeared to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob as God Almighty,^a but by my name ‘The Lord’^b I did not make myself known to them. ⁴I also established my covenant with them, to give them the land of Canaan, the land in which they resided as aliens. ⁵I have also heard the groaning of the Israelites whom the Egyptians are holding as slaves, and I have remembered my covenant. ⁶Say therefore to the Israelites, ‘I am the Lord, and I will free you from the burdens of the Egyptians and deliver you from slavery to them. I will redeem you with an outstretched arm and with mighty acts of judgment. ⁷I will take you as my people, and I will be your God. You shall know that I am the Lord your God, who has freed you from the burdens of the Egyptians. ⁸I will bring you into the land that I swore to give to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; I will give it to you for a possession. I am the Lord.’” ⁹Moses told this to the Israelites; but they would not listen to Moses, because of their broken spirit and their cruel slavery.

¹⁰Then the Lord spoke to Moses, ¹¹“Go and tell Pharaoh king of Egypt to let the Israelites go out of his land.” ¹²But Moses spoke to the Lord, “The Israelites have not listened to me; how then shall Pharaoh listen to me, poor speaker that I am?”^{c 13}Thus the Lord spoke to Moses and Aaron, and gave them orders regarding the Israelites and Pharaoh king of Egypt, charging them to free the Israelites from the land of Egypt.

¹⁴The following are the heads of their ancestral houses: the sons of Reuben, the firstborn of Israel: Hanoch, Pallu, Hezron, and Carmi; these are the families of Reuben. ¹⁵The sons of Simeon: Jemuel, Jamin, Ohad, Jachin, Zohar, and Shaul,^d the son of a Canaanite woman; these are the families of Simeon. ¹⁶The following are the names of the sons of Levi according to their genealogies: Gershon,^e Kohath, and Merari, and the length of Levi’s life was one hundred thirty‐seven years. ¹⁷The sons of Gershon:^e Libni and Shimei, by their families. ¹⁸The sons of Kohath: Amram, Izhar, Hebron, and Uzziel, and the length of Kohath’s life was one hundred thirty‐three years. ¹⁹The sons of Merari: Mahli and Mushi. These are the families of the Levites according to their genealogies. ²⁰Amram married Jochebed his father’s sister and she bore him Aaron and Moses, and the length of Amram’s life was one hundred thirty‐seven years. ²¹The sons of Izhar: Korah, Nepheg, and Zichri. ²²The sons of Uzziel: Mishael, Elzaphan, and Sithri. ²³Aaron married Elisheba, daughter of Amminadab and sister of Nahshon, and she bore him Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar. ²⁴The sons of Korah: Assir, Elkanah, and Abiasaph; these are the families of the Korahites. ²⁵Aaron’s son Eleazar married one of the daughters of Putiel, and she bore him Phinehas. These are the heads of the ancestral houses of the Levites by their families.

²⁶It was this same Aaron and Moses to whom the Lord said, “Bring the Israelites out of the land of Egypt, company by company.” ²⁷It was they who spoke to Pharaoh king of Egypt to bring the Israelites out of Egypt, the same Moses and Aaron.

²⁸On the day when the Lord spoke to Moses in the land of Egypt, ²⁹he said to him, “I am the Lord; tell Pharaoh king of Egypt all that I am speaking to you.” ³⁰But Moses said in the Lord’s presence, “Since I am a poor speaker,^a why would Pharaoh listen to me?”

⁷ The Lord said to Moses, “See, I have made you like God to Pharaoh, and your brother Aaron shall be your prophet. ²You shall speak all that I command you, and your brother Aaron shall tell Pharaoh to let the Israelites go out of his land. ³But I will harden Pharaoh’s heart, and I will multiply my signs and wonders in the land of Egypt. ⁴When Pharaoh does not listen to you, I will lay my hand upon Egypt and bring my people the Israelites, company by company, out of the land of Egypt by great acts of judgment. ⁵The Egyptians shall know that I am the Lord, when I stretch out my hand against Egypt and bring the Israelites out from among them.” ⁶Moses and Aaron did so; they did just as the Lord commanded them. ⁷Moses was eighty years old and Aaron eighty‐three when they spoke to Pharaoh.

⁸The Lord said to Moses and Aaron, ⁹“When Pharaoh says to you, ‘Perform a wonder,’ then you shall say to Aaron, ‘Take your staff and throw it down before Pharaoh, and it will become a snake.’” ¹⁰So Moses and Aaron went to Pharaoh and did as the Lord had commanded; Aaron threw down his staff before Pharaoh and his officials, and it became a snake. ¹¹Then Pharaoh summoned the wise men and the sorcerers; and they also, the magicians of Egypt, did the same by their secret arts. ¹²Each one threw down his staff, and they became snakes; but Aaron’s staff swallowed up theirs. ¹³Still Pharaoh’s heart was hardened, and he would not listen to them, as the Lord had said.

¹⁴Then the Lord said to Moses, “Pharaoh’s heart is hardened; he refuses to let the people go. ¹⁵Go to Pharaoh in the morning, as he is going out to the water; stand by at the river bank to meet him, and take in your hand the staff that was turned into a snake. ¹⁶Say to him, ‘The Lord, the God of the Hebrews, sent me to you to say, “Let my people go, so that they may worship me in the wilderness.” But until now you have not listened. ¹⁷Thus says the Lord, “By this you shall know that I am the Lord.” See, with the staff that is in my hand I will strike the water that is in the Nile, and it shall be turned to blood. ¹⁸The fish in the river shall die, the river itself shall stink, and the Egyptians shall be unable to drink water from the Nile.’” ¹⁹The Lord said to Moses, “Say to Aaron, ‘Take your staff and stretch out your hand over the waters of Egypt—over its rivers, its canals, and its ponds, and all its pools of water—so that they may become blood; and there shall be blood throughout the whole land of Egypt, even in vessels of wood and in vessels of stone.’”

²⁰Moses and Aaron did just as the Lord commanded. In the sight of Pharaoh and of his officials he lifted up the staff and struck the water in the river, and all the water in the river was turned into blood, ²¹and the fish in the river died. The river stank so that the Egyptians could not drink its water, and there was blood throughout the whole land of Egypt. ²²But the magicians of Egypt did the same by their secret arts; so Pharaoh’s heart remained hardened, and he would not listen to them, as the Lord had said. ²³Pharaoh turned and went into his house, and he did not take even this to heart. ²⁴And all the Egyptians had to dig along the Nile for water to drink, for they could not drink the water of the river.

²⁵Seven days passed after the Lord had struck the Nile.

^8a Then the Lord said to Moses, “Go to Pharaoh and say to him, ‘Thus says the Lord: Let my people go, so that they may worship me. ²If you refuse to let them go, I will plague your whole country with frogs. ³The river shall swarm with frogs; they shall come up into your palace, into your bedchamber and your bed, and into the houses of your officials and of your people,^a and into your ovens and your kneading bowls. ⁴The frogs shall come up on you and on your people and on all your officials.’” ^5bAnd the Lord said to Moses, “Say to Aaron, ‘Stretch out your hand with your staff over the rivers, the canals, and the pools, and make frogs come up on the land of Egypt.’” ⁶So Aaron stretched out his hand over the waters of Egypt; and the frogs came up and covered the land of Egypt. ⁷But the magicians did the same by their secret arts, and brought frogs up on the land of Egypt.

⁸Then Pharaoh called Moses and Aaron, and said, “Pray to the Lord to take away the frogs from me and my people, and I will let the people go to sacrifice to the Lord.” ⁹Moses said to Pharaoh, “Kindly tell me when I am to pray for you and for your officials and for your people, that the frogs may be removed from you and your houses and be left only in the Nile.” ¹⁰And he said, “Tomorrow.” Moses said, “As you say! So that you may know that there is no one like the Lord our God, ¹¹the frogs shall leave you and your houses and your officials and your people; they shall be left only in the Nile.” ¹²Then Moses and Aaron went out from Pharaoh; and Moses cried out to the Lord concerning the frogs that he had brought upon Pharaoh.^{c 13}And the Lord did as Moses requested: the frogs died in the houses, the courtyards, and the fields. ¹⁴And they gathered them together in heaps, and the land stank. ¹⁵But when Pharaoh saw that there was a respite, he hardened his heart, and would not listen to them, just as the Lord had said.

¹⁶Then the Lord said to Moses, “Say to Aaron, ‘Stretch out your staff and strike the dust of the earth, so that it may become gnats throughout the whole land of Egypt.’” ¹⁷And they did so; Aaron stretched out his hand with his staff and struck the dust of the earth, and gnats came on humans and animals alike; all the dust of the earth turned into gnats throughout the whole land of Egypt. ¹⁸The magicians tried to produce gnats by their secret arts, but they could not. There were gnats on both humans and animals. ¹⁹And the magicians said to Pharaoh, “This is the finger of God!” But Pharaoh’s heart was hardened, and he would not listen to them, just as the Lord had said.

²⁰Then the Lord said to Moses, “Rise early in the morning and present yourself before Pharaoh, as he goes out to the water, and say to him, ‘Thus says the Lord: Let my people go, so that they may worship me. ²¹For if you will not let my people go, I will send swarms of flies on you, your officials, and your people, and into your houses; and the houses of the Egyptians shall be filled with swarms of flies; so also the land where they live. ²²But on that day I will set apart the land of Goshen, where my people live, so that no swarms of flies shall be there, that you may know that I the Lord am in this land. ²³Thus I will make a distinction^a between my people and your people. This sign shall appear tomorrow.’” ²⁴The Lord did so, and great swarms of flies came into the house of Pharaoh and into his officials’ houses; in all of Egypt the land was ruined because of the flies.

²⁵Then Pharaoh summoned Moses and Aaron, and said, “Go, sacrifice to your God within the land.” ²⁶But Moses said, “It would not be right to do so; for the sacrifices that we offer to the Lord our God are offensive to the Egyptians. If we offer in the sight of the Egyptians sacrifices that are offensive to them, will they not stone us? ²⁷We must go a three days’ journey into the wilderness and sacrifice to the Lord our God as he commands us.” ²⁸So Pharaoh said, “I will let you go to sacrifice to the Lord your God in the wilderness, provided you do not go very far away. Pray for me.” ²⁹Then Moses said, “As soon as I leave you, I will pray to the Lord that the swarms of flies may depart tomorrow from Pharaoh, from his officials, and from his people; only do not let Pharaoh again deal falsely by not letting the people go to sacrifice to the Lord.”

³⁰So Moses went out from Pharaoh and prayed to the Lord. ³¹And the Lord did as Moses asked: he removed the swarms of flies from Pharaoh, from his officials, and from his people; not one remained. ³²But Pharaoh hardened his heart this time also, and would not let the people go.

⁹ Then the Lord said to Moses, “Go to Pharaoh, and say to him, ‘Thus says the Lord, the God of the Hebrews: Let my people go, so that they may worship me. ²For if you refuse to let them go and still hold them, ³the hand of the Lord will strike with a deadly pestilence your livestock in the field: the horses, the donkeys, the camels, the herds, and the flocks. ⁴But the Lord will make a distinction between the livestock of Israel and the livestock of Egypt, so that nothing shall die of all that belongs to the Israelites.’” ⁵The Lord set a time, saying, “Tomorrow the Lord will do this thing in the land.” ⁶And on the next day the Lord did so; all the livestock of the Egyptians died, but of the livestock of the Israelites not one died. ⁷Pharaoh inquired and found that not one of the livestock of the Israelites was dead. But the heart of Pharaoh was hardened, and he would not let the people go.

⁸Then the Lord said to Moses and Aaron, “Take handfuls of soot from the kiln, and let Moses throw it in the air in the sight of Pharaoh. ⁹It shall become fine dust all over the land of Egypt, and shall cause festering boils on humans and animals throughout the whole land of Egypt.” ¹⁰So they took soot from the kiln, and stood before Pharaoh, and Moses threw it in the air, and it caused festering boils on humans and animals. ¹¹The magicians could not stand before Moses because of the boils, for the boils afflicted the magicians as well as all the Egyptians. ¹²But the Lord hardened the heart of Pharaoh, and he would not listen to them, just as the Lord had spoken to Moses.

¹³Then the Lord said to Moses, “Rise up early in the morning and present yourself before Pharaoh, and say to him, ‘Thus says the Lord, the God of the Hebrews: Let my people go, so that they may worship me. ¹⁴For this time I will send all my plagues upon you yourself, and upon your officials, and upon your people, so that you may know that there is no one like me in all the earth. ¹⁵For by now I could have stretched out my hand and struck you and your people with pestilence, and you would have been cut off from the earth. ¹⁶But this is why I have let you live: to show you my power, and to make my name resound through all the earth. ¹⁷You are still exalting yourself against my people, and will not let them go. ¹⁸Tomorrow at this time I will cause the heaviest hail to fall that has ever fallen in Egypt from the day it was founded until now. ¹⁹Send, therefore, and have your livestock and everything that you have in the open field brought to a secure place; every human or animal that is in the open field and is not brought under shelter will die when the hail comes down upon them.’” ²⁰Those officials of Pharaoh who feared the word of the Lord hurried their slaves and livestock off to a secure place. ²¹Those who did not regard the word of the Lord left their slaves and livestock in the open field.

²²The Lord said to Moses, “Stretch out your hand toward heaven so that hail may fall on the whole land of Egypt, on humans and animals and all the plants of the field in the land of Egypt.” ²³Then Moses stretched out his staff toward heaven, and the Lord sent thunder and hail, and fire came down on the earth. And the Lord rained hail on the land of Egypt; ²⁴there was hail with fire flashing continually in the midst of it, such heavy hail as had never fallen in all the land of Egypt since it became a nation. ²⁵The hail struck down everything that was in the open field throughout all the land of Egypt, both human and animal; the hail also struck down all the plants of the field, and shattered every tree in the field. ²⁶Only in the land of Goshen, where the Israelites were, there was no hail.

²⁷Then Pharaoh summoned Moses and Aaron, and said to them, “This time I have sinned; the Lord is in the right, and I and my people are in the wrong. ²⁸Pray to the Lord! Enough of God’s thunder and hail! I will let you go; you need stay no longer.” ²⁹Moses said to him, “As soon as I have gone out of the city, I will stretch out my hands to the Lord; the thunder will cease, and there will be no more hail, so that you may know that the earth is the Lord’s. ³⁰But as for you and your officials, I know that you do not yet fear the Lord God.” ³¹(Now the flax and the barley were ruined, for the barley was in the ear and the flax was in bud. ³²But the wheat and the spelt were not ruined, for they are late in coming up.) ³³So Moses left Pharaoh, went out of the city, and stretched out his hands to the Lord; then the thunder and the hail ceased, and the rain no longer poured down on the earth. ³⁴But when Pharaoh saw that the rain and the hail and the thunder had ceased, he sinned once more and hardened his heart, he and his officials. ³⁵So the heart of Pharaoh was hardened, and he would not let the Israelites go, just as the Lord had spoken through Moses.

¹⁰ Then the Lord said to Moses, “Go to Pharaoh; for I have hardened his heart and the heart of his officials, in order that I may show these signs of mine among them, ²and that you may tell your children and grandchildren how I have made fools of the Egyptians and what signs I have done among them—so that you may know that I am the Lord.”

³So Moses and Aaron went to Pharaoh, and said to him, “Thus says the Lord, the God of the Hebrews, ‘How long will you refuse to humble yourself before me? Let my people go, so that they may worship me. ⁴For if you refuse to let my people go, tomorrow I will bring locusts into your country. ⁵They shall cover the surface of the land, so that no one will be able to see the land. They shall devour the last remnant left you after the hail, and they shall devour every tree of yours that grows in the field. ⁶They shall fill your houses, and the houses of all your officials and of all the Egyptians—something that neither your parents nor your grandparents have seen, from the day they came on earth to this day.’” Then he turned and went out from Pharaoh.

⁷Pharaoh’s officials said to him, “How long shall this fellow be a snare to us? Let the people go, so that they may worship the Lord their God; do you not yet understand that Egypt is ruined?” ⁸So Moses and Aaron were brought back to Pharaoh, and he said to them, “Go, worship the Lord your God! But which ones are to go?” ⁹Moses said, “We will go with our young and our old; we will go with our sons and daughters and with our flocks and herds, because we have the Lord’s festival to celebrate.” ¹⁰He said to them, “The Lord indeed will be with you, if ever I let your little ones go with you! Plainly, you have some evil purpose in mind. ¹¹No, never! Your men may go and worship the Lord, for that is what you are asking.” And they were driven out from Pharaoh’s presence.

¹²Then the Lord said to Moses, “Stretch out your hand over the land of Egypt, so that the locusts may come upon it and eat every plant in the land, all that the hail has left.” ¹³So Moses stretched out his staff over the land of Egypt, and the Lord brought an east wind upon the land all that day and all that night; when morning came, the east wind had brought the locusts. ¹⁴The locusts came upon all the land of Egypt and settled on the whole country of Egypt, such a dense swarm of locusts as had never been before, nor ever shall be again. ¹⁵They covered the surface of the whole land, so that the land was black; and they ate all the plants in the land and all the fruit of the trees that the hail had left; nothing green was left, no tree, no plant in the field, in all the land of Egypt. ¹⁶Pharaoh hurriedly summoned Moses and Aaron and said, “I have sinned against the Lord your God, and against you. ¹⁷Do forgive my sin just this once, and pray to the Lord your God that at the least he remove this deadly thing from me.” ¹⁸So he went out from Pharaoh and prayed to the Lord. ¹⁹The Lord changed the wind into a very strong west wind, which lifted the locusts and drove them into the Red Sea;^a not a single locust was left in all the country of Egypt. ²⁰But the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart, and he would not let the Israelites go.

²¹Then the Lord said to Moses, “Stretch out your hand toward heaven so that there may be darkness over the land of Egypt, a darkness that can be felt.” ²²So Moses stretched out his hand toward heaven, and there was dense darkness in all the land of Egypt for three days. ²³People could not see one another, and for three days they could not move from where they were; but all the Israelites had light where they lived. ²⁴Then Pharaoh summoned Moses, and said, “Go, worship the Lord. Only your flocks and your herds shall remain behind. Even your children may go with you.” ²⁵But Moses said, “You must also let us have sacrifices and burnt offerings to sacrifice to the Lord our God. ²⁶Our livestock also must go with us; not a hoof shall be left behind, for we must choose some of them for the worship of the Lord our God, and we will not know what to use to worship the Lord until we arrive there.” ²⁷But the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart, and he was unwilling to let them go. ²⁸Then Pharaoh said to him, “Get away from me! Take care that you do not see my face again, for on the day you see my face you shall die.” ²⁹Moses said, “Just as you say! I will never see your face again.”

¹¹ The Lord said to Moses, “I will bring one more plague upon Pharaoh and upon Egypt; afterwards he will let you go from here; indeed, when he lets you go, he will drive you away. ²Tell the people that every man is to ask his neighbor and every woman is to ask her neighbor for objects of silver and gold.” ³The Lord gave the people favor in the sight of the Egyptians. Moreover, Moses himself was a man of great importance in the land of Egypt, in the sight of Pharaoh’s officials and in the sight of the people.

⁴Moses said, “Thus says the Lord: About midnight I will go out through Egypt. ⁵Every firstborn in the land of Egypt shall die, from the firstborn of Pharaoh who sits on his throne to the firstborn of the female slave who is behind the handmill, and all the firstborn of the livestock. ⁶Then there will be a loud cry throughout the whole land of Egypt, such as has never been or will ever be again. ⁷But not a dog shall growl at any of the Israelites—not at people, not at animals—so that you may know that the Lord makes a distinction between Egypt and Israel. ⁸Then all these officials of yours shall come down to me, and bow low to me, saying, ‘Leave us, you and all the people who follow you.’ After that I will leave.” And in hot anger he left Pharaoh.

⁹The Lord said to Moses, “Pharaoh will not listen to you, in order that my wonders may be multiplied in the land of Egypt.” ¹⁰Moses and Aaron performed all these wonders before Pharaoh; but the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart, and he did not let the people of Israel go out of his land.

¹² The Lord said to Moses and Aaron in the land of Egypt: ²This month shall mark for you the beginning of months; it shall be the first month of the year for you. ³Tell the whole congregation of Israel that on the tenth of this month they are to take a lamb for each family, a lamb for each household. ⁴If a household is too small for a whole lamb, it shall join its closest neighbor in obtaining one; the lamb shall be divided in proportion to the number of people who eat of it. ⁵Your lamb shall be without blemish, a year‐old male; you may take it from the sheep or from the goats. ⁶You shall keep it until the fourteenth day of this month; then the whole assembled congregation of Israel shall slaughter it at twilight. ⁷They shall take some of the blood and put it on the two doorposts and the lintel of the houses in which they eat it. ⁸They shall eat the lamb that same night; they shall eat it roasted over the fire with unleavened bread and bitter herbs. ⁹Do not eat any of it raw or boiled in water, but roasted over the fire, with its head, legs, and inner organs. ¹⁰You shall let none of it remain until the morning; anything that remains until the morning you shall burn. ¹¹This is how you shall eat it: your loins girded, your sandals on your feet, and your staff in your hand; and you shall eat it hurriedly. It is the passover of the Lord. ¹²For I will pass through the land of Egypt that night, and I will strike down every firstborn in the land of Egypt, both human beings and animals; on all the gods of Egypt I will execute judgments: I am the Lord. ¹³The blood shall be a sign for you on the houses where you live: when I see the blood, I will pass over you, and no plague shall destroy you when I strike the land of Egypt.

¹⁴This day shall be a day of remembrance for you. You shall celebrate it as a festival to the Lord; throughout your generations you shall observe it as a perpetual ordinance. ¹⁵Seven days you shall eat unleavened bread; on the first day you shall remove leaven from your houses, for whoever eats leavened bread from the first day until the seventh day shall be cut off from Israel. ¹⁶On the first day you shall hold a solemn assembly, and on the seventh day a solemn assembly; no work shall be done on those days; only what everyone must eat, that alone may be prepared by you. ¹⁷You shall observe the festival of unleavened bread, for on this very day I brought your companies out of the land of Egypt: you shall observe this day throughout your generations as a perpetual ordinance. ¹⁸In the first month, from the evening of the fourteenth day until the evening of the twenty‐first day, you shall eat unleavened bread. ¹⁹For seven days no leaven shall be found in your houses; for whoever eats what is leavened shall be cut off from the congregation of Israel, whether an alien or a native of the land. ²⁰You shall eat nothing leavened; in all your settlements you shall eat unleavened bread.

²¹Then Moses called all the elders of Israel and said to them, “Go, select lambs for your families, and slaughter the passover lamb. ²²Take a bunch of hyssop, dip it in the blood that is in the basin, and touch the lintel and the two doorposts with the blood in the basin. None of you shall go outside the door of your house until morning. ²³For the Lord will pass through to strike down the Egyptians; when he sees the blood on the lintel and on the two doorposts, the Lord will pass over that door and will not allow the destroyer to enter your houses to strike you down. ²⁴You shall observe this rite as a perpetual ordinance for you and your children. ²⁵When you come to the land that the Lord will give you, as he has promised, you shall keep this observance. ²⁶And when your children ask you, ‘What do you mean by this observance?’ ²⁷you shall say, ‘It is the passover sacrifice to the Lord, for he passed over the houses of the Israelites in Egypt, when he struck down the Egyptians but spared our houses.’” And the people bowed down and worshiped.

²⁸The Israelites went and did just as the Lord had commanded Moses and Aaron.

²⁹At midnight the Lord struck down all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from the firstborn of Pharaoh who sat on his throne to the firstborn of the prisoner who was in the dungeon, and all the firstborn of the livestock. ³⁰Pharaoh arose in the night, he and all his officials and all the Egyptians; and there was a loud cry in Egypt, for there was not a house without someone dead. ³¹Then he summoned Moses and Aaron in the night, and said, “Rise up, go away from my people, both you and the Israelites! Go, worship the Lord, as you said. ³²Take your flocks and your herds, as you said, and be gone. And bring a blessing on me too!”

³³The Egyptians urged the people to hasten their departure from the land, for they said, “We shall all be dead.” ³⁴So the people took their dough before it was leavened, with their kneading bowls wrapped up in their cloaks on their shoulders. ³⁵The Israelites had done as Moses told them; they had asked the Egyptians for jewelry of silver and gold, and for clothing, ³⁶and the Lord had given the people favor in the sight of the Egyptians, so that they let them have what they asked. And so they plundered the Egyptians.

³⁷The Israelites journeyed from Rameses to Succoth, about six hundred thousand men on foot, besides children. ³⁸A mixed crowd also went up with them, and livestock in great numbers, both flocks and herds. ³⁹They baked unleavened cakes of the dough that they had brought out of Egypt; it was not leavened, because they were driven out of Egypt and could not wait, nor had they prepared any provisions for themselves.

⁴⁰The time that the Israelites had lived in Egypt was four hundred thirty years. ⁴¹At the end of four hundred thirty years, on that very day, all the companies of the Lord went out from the land of Egypt. ⁴²That was for the Lord a night of vigil, to bring them out of the land of Egypt. That same night is a vigil to be kept for the Lord by all the Israelites throughout their generations.

⁴³The Lord said to Moses and Aaron: This is the ordinance for the passover: no foreigner shall eat of it, ⁴⁴but any slave who has been purchased may eat of it after he has been circumcised; ⁴⁵no bound or hired servant may eat of it. ⁴⁶It shall be eaten in one house; you shall not take any of the animal outside the house, and you shall not break any of its bones. ⁴⁷The whole congregation of Israel shall celebrate it. ⁴⁸If an alien who resides with you wants to celebrate the passover to the Lord, all his males shall be circumcised; then he may draw near to celebrate it; he shall be regarded as a native of the land. But no uncircumcised person shall eat of it; ⁴⁹there shall be one law for the native and for the alien who resides among you.

⁵⁰All the Israelites did just as the Lord had commanded Moses and Aaron. ⁵¹That very day the Lord brought the Israelites out of the land of Egypt, company by company.

¹³ The Lord said to Moses: ²Consecrate to me all the firstborn; whatever is the first to open the womb among the Israelites, of human beings and animals, is mine.

³Moses said to the people, “Remember this day on which you came out of Egypt, out of the house of slavery, because the Lord brought you out from there by strength of hand; no leavened bread shall be eaten. ⁴Today, in the month of Abib, you are going out. ⁵When the Lord brings you into the land of the Canaanites, the Hittites, the Amorites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites, which he swore to your ancestors to give you, a land flowing with milk and honey, you shall keep this observance in this month. ⁶Seven days you shall eat unleavened bread, and on the seventh day there shall be a festival to the Lord. ⁷Unleavened bread shall be eaten for seven days; no leavened bread shall be seen in your possession, and no leaven shall be seen among you in all your territory. ⁸You shall tell your child on that day, ‘It is because of what the Lord did for me when I came out of Egypt.’ ⁹It shall serve for you as a sign on your hand and as a reminder on your forehead, so that the teaching of the Lord may be on your lips; for with a strong hand the Lord brought you out of Egypt. ¹⁰You shall keep this ordinance at its proper time from year to year.

¹¹“When the Lord has brought you into the land of the Canaanites, as he swore to you and your ancestors, and has given it to you, ¹²you shall set apart to the Lord all that first opens the womb. All the firstborn of your livestock that are males shall be the Lord’s. ¹³But every firstborn donkey you shall redeem with a sheep; if you do not redeem it, you must break its neck. Every firstborn male among your children you shall redeem. ¹⁴When in the future your child asks you, ‘What does this mean?’ you shall answer, ‘By strength of hand the Lord brought us out of Egypt, from the house of slavery. ¹⁵When Pharaoh stubbornly refused to let us go, the Lord killed all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from human firstborn to the firstborn of animals. Therefore I sacrifice to the Lord every male that first opens the womb, but every firstborn of my sons I redeem.’ ¹⁶It shall serve as a sign on your hand and as an emblem^a on your forehead that by strength of hand the Lord brought us out of Egypt.”

The Nile Delta and the Sinai Peninsula. Tell el Maskhutah and Tell ed‐Dab’a have been identified as the cities of Pithom and Ramses. Jebel Musa in the southern Sinai Peninsula is the traditional identification of Mount Sinai, but that is questioned by most scholars.

¹⁷When Pharaoh let the people go, God did not lead them by way of the land of the Philistines, although that was nearer; for God thought, “If the people face war, they may change their minds and return to Egypt.” ¹⁸So God led the people by the roundabout way of the wilderness toward the Red Sea.^a The Israelites went up out of the land of Egypt prepared for battle. ¹⁹And Moses took with him the bones of Joseph who had required a solemn oath of the Israelites, saying, “God will surely take notice of you, and then you must carry my bones with you from here.” ²⁰They set out from Succoth, and camped at Etham, on the edge of the wilderness. ²¹The Lord went in front of them in a pillar of cloud by day, to lead them along the way, and in a pillar of fire by night, to give them light, so that they might travel by day and by night. ²²Neither the pillar of cloud by day nor the pillar of fire by night left its place in front of the people.

¹⁴ Then the Lord said to Moses: ²Tell the Israelites to turn back and camp in front of Pi‐hahiroth, between Migdol and the sea, in front of Baal‐zephon; you shall camp opposite it, by the sea. ³Pharaoh will say of the Israelites, “They are wandering aimlessly in the land; the wilderness has closed in on them.” ⁴I will harden Pharaoh’s heart, and he will pursue them, so that I will gain glory for myself over Pharaoh and all his army; and the Egyptians shall know that I am the Lord. And they did so.

⁵When the king of Egypt was told that the people had fled, the minds of Pharaoh and his officials were changed toward the people, and they said, “What have we done, letting Israel leave our service?” ⁶So he had his chariot made ready, and took his army with him; ⁷he took six hundred picked chariots and all the other chariots of Egypt with officers over all of them. ⁸The Lord hardened the heart of Pharaoh king of Egypt and he pursued the Israelites, who were going out boldly. ⁹The Egyptians pursued them, all Pharaoh’s horses and chariots, his chariot drivers and his army; they overtook them camped by the sea, by Pi‐hahiroth, in front of Baal‐zephon.

¹⁰As Pharaoh drew near, the Israelites looked back, and there were the Egyptians advancing on them. In great fear the Israelites cried out to the Lord. ¹¹They said to Moses, “Was it because there were no graves in Egypt that you have taken us away to die in the wilderness? What have you done to us, bringing us out of Egypt? ¹²Is this not the very thing we told you in Egypt, ‘Let us alone and let us serve the Egyptians’? For it would have been better for us to serve the Egyptians than to die in the wilderness.” ¹³But Moses said to the people, “Do not be afraid, stand firm, and see the deliverance that the Lord will accomplish for you today; for the Egyptians whom you see today you shall never see again. ¹⁴The Lord will fight for you, and you have only to keep still.”

¹⁵Then the Lord said to Moses, “Why do you cry out to me? Tell the Israelites to go forward. ¹⁶But you lift up your staff, and stretch out your hand over the sea and divide it, that the Israelites may go into the sea on dry ground. ¹⁷Then I will harden the hearts of the Egyptians so that they will go in after them; and so I will gain glory for myself over Pharaoh and all his army, his chariots, and his chariot drivers. ¹⁸And the Egyptians shall know that I am the Lord, when I have gained glory for myself over Pharaoh, his chariots, and his chariot drivers.”

¹⁹The angel of God who was going before the Israelite army moved and went behind them; and the pillar of cloud moved from in front of them and took its place behind them. ²⁰It came between the army of Egypt and the army of Israel. And so the cloud was there with the darkness, and it lit up the night; one did not come near the other all night.

²¹Then Moses stretched out his hand over the sea. The Lord drove the sea back by a strong east wind all night, and turned the sea into dry land; and the waters were divided. ²²The Israelites went into the sea on dry ground, the waters forming a wall for them on their right and on their left. ²³The Egyptians pursued, and went into the sea after them, all of Pharaoh’s horses, chariots, and chariot drivers. ²⁴At the morning watch the Lord in the pillar of fire and cloud looked down upon the Egyptian army, and threw the Egyptian army into panic. ²⁵He clogged^a their chariot wheels so that they turned with difficulty. The Egyptians said, “Let us flee from the Israelites, for the Lord is fighting for them against Egypt.”

²⁶Then the Lord said to Moses, “Stretch out your hand over the sea, so that the water may come back upon the Egyptians, upon their chariots and chariot drivers.” ²⁷So Moses stretched out his hand over the sea, and at dawn the sea returned to its normal depth. As the Egyptians fled before it, the Lord tossed the Egyptians into the sea. ²⁸The waters returned and covered the chariots and the chariot drivers, the entire army of Pharaoh that had followed them into the sea; not one of them remained. ²⁹But the Israelites walked on dry ground through the sea, the waters forming a wall for them on their right and on their left.

³⁰Thus the Lord saved Israel that day from the Egyptians; and Israel saw the Egyptians dead on the seashore. ³¹Israel saw the great work that the Lord did against the Egyptians. So the people feared the Lord and believed in the Lord and in his servant Moses.

¹⁵ Then Moses and the Israelites sang this song to the Lord:

“I will sing to the Lord, for he has triumphed gloriously;

 horse and rider he has thrown into the sea.

²The Lord is my strength and my might,^b

 and he has become my salvation;

this is my God, and I will praise him,

 my father’s God, and I will exalt him.

³The Lord is a warrior;

 the Lord is his name.

⁴“Pharaoh’s chariots and his army he cast into the sea;

 his picked officers were sunk in the Red Sea.^a

⁵The floods covered them;

 they went down into the depths like a stone.

⁶Your right hand, O Lord, glorious in power—

 your right hand, O Lord, shattered the enemy.

⁷In the greatness of your majesty you overthrew your adversaries;

 you sent out your fury, it consumed them like stubble.

⁸At the blast of your nostrils the waters piled up,

 the floods stood up in a heap;

 the deeps congealed in the heart of the sea.

⁹The enemy said, ‘I will pursue, I will overtake,

 I will divide the spoil, my desire shall have its fill of them.

 I will draw my sword, my hand shall destroy them.’

¹⁰You blew with your wind, the sea covered them;

 they sank like lead in the mighty waters.

¹¹“Who is like you, O Lord, among the gods?

 Who is like you, majestic in holiness,

 awesome in splendor, doing wonders?

¹²You stretched out your right hand,

 the earth swallowed them.

¹³“In your steadfast love you led the people whom you redeemed;

 you guided them by your strength to your holy abode.

¹⁴The peoples heard, they trembled;

 pangs seized the inhabitants of Philistia.

¹⁵Then the chiefs of Edom were dismayed;

 trembling seized the leaders of Moab;

 all the inhabitants of Canaan melted away.

¹⁶Terror and dread fell upon them;

 by the might of your arm, they became still as a stone

until your people, O Lord, passed by,

 until the people whom you acquired passed by.

¹⁷You brought them in and planted them on the mountain of your own possession,

 the place, O Lord, that you made your abode,

 the sanctuary, O Lord, that your hands have established.

¹⁸The Lord will reign forever and ever.”

¹⁹When the horses of Pharaoh with his chariots and his chariot drivers went into the sea, the Lord brought back the waters of the sea upon them; but the Israelites walked through the sea on dry ground.

²⁰Then the prophet Miriam, Aaron’s sister, took a tambourine in her hand; and all the women went out after her with tambourines and with dancing. ²¹And Miriam sang to them:

“Sing to the Lord, for he has triumphed gloriously;

horse and rider he has thrown into the sea.”

²²Then Moses ordered Israel to set out from the Red Sea,^a and they went into the wilderness of Shur. They went three days in the wilderness and found no water. ²³When they came to Marah, they could not drink the water of Marah because it was bitter. That is why it was called Marah.^{b 24}And the people complained against Moses, saying, “What shall we drink?” ²⁵He cried out to the Lord; and the Lord showed him a piece of wood;^c he threw it into the water, and the water became sweet.

There the Lord^d made for them a statute and an ordinance and there he put them to the test. ²⁶He said, “If you will listen carefully to the voice of the Lord your God, and do what is right in his sight, and give heed to his commandments and keep all his statutes, I will not bring upon you any of the diseases that I brought upon the Egyptians; for I am the Lord who heals you.”

²⁷Then they came to Elim, where there were twelve springs of water and seventy palm trees; and they camped there by the water.

¹⁶ The whole congregation of the Israelites set out from Elim; and Israel came to the wilderness of Sin, which is between Elim and Sinai, on the fifteenth day of the second month after they had departed from the land of Egypt. ²The whole congregation of the Israelites complained against Moses and Aaron in the wilderness. ³The Israelites said to them, “If only we had died by the hand of the Lord in the land of Egypt, when we sat by the fleshpots and ate our fill of bread; for you have brought us out into this wilderness to kill this whole assembly with hunger.”

⁴Then the Lord said to Moses, “I am going to rain bread from heaven for you, and each day the people shall go out and gather enough for that day. In that way I will test them, whether they will follow my instruction or not. ⁵On the sixth day, when they prepare what they bring in, it will be twice as much as they gather on other days.” ⁶So Moses and Aaron said to all the Israelites, “In the evening you shall know that it was the Lord who brought you out of the land of Egypt, ⁷and in the morning you shall see the glory of the Lord, because he has heard your complaining against the Lord. For what are we, that you complain against us?” ⁸And Moses said, “When the Lord gives you meat to eat in the evening and your fill of bread in the morning, because the Lord has heard the complaining that you utter against him— what are we? Your complaining is not against us but against the Lord.”

⁹Then Moses said to Aaron, “Say to the whole congregation of the Israelites, ‘Draw near to the Lord, for he has heard your complaining.’” ¹⁰And as Aaron spoke to the whole congregation of the Israelites, they looked toward the wilderness, and the glory of the Lord appeared in the cloud. ¹¹The Lord spoke to Moses and said, ¹²“I have heard the complaining of the Israelites; say to them, ‘At twilight you shall eat meat, and in the morning you shall have your fill of bread; then you shall know that I am the Lord your God.’”

¹³In the evening quails came up and covered the camp; and in the morning there was a layer of dew around the camp. ¹⁴When the layer of dew lifted, there on the surface of the wilderness was a fine flaky substance, as fine as frost on the ground. ¹⁵When the Israelites saw it, they said to one another, “What is it?”^a For they did not know what it was. Moses said to them, “It is the bread that the Lord has given you to eat. ¹⁶This is what the Lord has commanded: ‘Gather as much of it as each of you needs, an omer to a person according to the number of persons, all providing for those in their own tents.’” ¹⁷The Israelites did so, some gathering more, some less. ¹⁸But when they measured it with an omer, those who gathered much had nothing over, and those who gathered little had no shortage; they gathered as much as each of them needed. ¹⁹And Moses said to them, “Let no one leave any of it over until morning.” ²⁰But they did not listen to Moses; some left part of it until morning, and it bred worms and became foul. And Moses was angry with them. ²¹Morning by morning they gathered it, as much as each needed; but when the sun grew hot, it melted.

²²On the sixth day they gathered twice as much food, two omers apiece. When all the leaders of the congregation came and told Moses, ²³he said to them, “This is what the Lord has commanded: ‘Tomorrow is a day of solemn rest, a holy sabbath to the Lord; bake what you want to bake and boil what you want to boil, and all that is left over put aside to be kept until morning.’” ²⁴So they put it aside until morning, as Moses commanded them; and it did not become foul, and there were no worms in it. ²⁵Moses said, “Eat it today, for today is a sabbath to the Lord; today you will not find it in the field. ²⁶Six days you shall gather it; but on the seventh day, which is a sabbath, there will be none.”

²⁷On the seventh day some of the people went out to gather, and they found none. ²⁸The Lord said to Moses, “How long will you refuse to keep my commandments and instructions? ²⁹See! The Lord has given you the sabbath, therefore on the sixth day he gives you food for two days; each of you stay where you are; do not leave your place on the seventh day.” ³⁰So the people rested on the seventh day.

³¹The house of Israel called it manna; it was like coriander seed, white, and the taste of it was like wafers made with honey. ³²Moses said, “This is what the Lord has commanded: ‘Let an omer of it be kept throughout your generations, in order that they may see the food with which I fed you in the wilderness, when I brought you out of the land of Egypt.’” ³³And Moses said to Aaron, “Take a jar, and put an omer of manna in it, and place it before the Lord, to be kept throughout your generations.” ³⁴As the Lord commanded Moses, so Aaron placed it before the covenant,^a for safekeeping. ³⁵The Israelites ate manna forty years, until they came to a habitable land; they ate manna, until they came to the border of the land of Canaan. ³⁶An omer is a tenth of an ephah.

¹⁷ From the wilderness of Sin the whole congregation of the Israelites journeyed by stages, as the Lord commanded. They camped at Rephidim, but there was no water for the people to drink. ²The people quarreled with Moses, and said, “Give us water to drink.” Moses said to them, “Why do you quarrel with me? Why do you test the Lord?” ³But the people thirsted there for water; and the people complained against Moses and said, “Why did you bring us out of Egypt, to kill us and our children and livestock with thirst?” ⁴So Moses cried out to the Lord, “What shall I do with this people? They are almost ready to stone me.” ⁵The Lord said to Moses, “Go on ahead of the people, and take some of the elders of Israel with you; take in your hand the staff with which you struck the Nile, and go. ⁶I will be standing there in front of you on the rock at Horeb. Strike the rock, and water will come out of it, so that the people may drink.” Moses did so, in the sight of the elders of Israel. ⁷He called the place Massah^b and Meribah,^c because the Israelites quarreled and tested the Lord, saying, “Is the Lord among us or not?”

⁸Then Amalek came and fought with Israel at Rephidim. ⁹Moses said to Joshua, “Choose some men for us and go out, fight with Amalek. Tomorrow I will stand on the top of the hill with the staff of God in my hand.” ¹⁰So Joshua did as Moses told him, and fought with Amalek, while Moses, Aaron, and Hur went up to the top of the hill. ¹¹Whenever Moses held up his hand, Israel prevailed; and whenever he lowered his hand, Amalek prevailed. ¹²But Moses’ hands grew weary; so they took a stone and put it under him, and he sat on it. Aaron and Hur held up his hands, one on one side, and the other on the other side; so his hands were steady until the sun set. ¹³And Joshua defeated Amalek and his people with the sword.

¹⁴Then the Lord said to Moses, “Write this as a reminder in a book and recite it in the hearing of Joshua: I will utterly blot out the remembrance of Amalek from under heaven.” ¹⁵And Moses built an altar and called it, The Lord is my banner. ¹⁶He said, “A hand upon the banner of the Lord!^a The Lord will have war with Amalek from generation to generation.”

¹⁸ Jethro, the priest of Midian, Moses’ father‐in‐law, heard of all that God had done for Moses and for his people Israel, how the Lord had brought Israel out of Egypt. ²After Moses had sent away his wife Zipporah, his father‐in‐law Jethro took her back, ³along with her two sons. The name of the one was Gershom (for he said, “I have been an alien^b in a foreign land”), ⁴and the name of the other, Eliezer^c (for he said, “The God of my father was my help, and delivered me from the sword of Pharaoh”). ⁵Jethro, Moses’ father‐in‐law, came into the wilderness where Moses was encamped at the mountain of God, bringing Moses’ sons and wife to him. ⁶He sent word to Moses, “I, your father‐inlaw Jethro, am coming to you, with your wife and her two sons.” ⁷Moses went out to meet his father‐in‐law; he bowed down and kissed him; each asked after the other’s welfare, and they went into the tent. ⁸Then Moses told his father‐in‐law all that the Lord had done to Pharaoh and to the Egyptians for Israel’s sake, all the hardship that had beset them on the way, and how the Lord had delivered them. ⁹Jethro rejoiced for all the good that the Lord had done to Israel, in delivering them from the Egyptians.

¹⁰Jethro said, “Blessed be the Lord, who has delivered you from the Egyptians and from Pharaoh. ¹¹Now I know that the Lord is greater than all gods, because he delivered the people from the Egyptians,^d when they dealt arrogantly with them.” ¹²And Jethro, Moses’ father‐in‐law, brought a burnt offering and sacrifices to God; and Aaron came with all the elders of Israel to eat bread with Moses’ father‐in‐law in the presence of God.

¹³The next day Moses sat as judge for the people, while the people stood around him from morning until evening. ¹⁴When Moses’ father‐in‐law saw all that he was doing for the people, he said, “What is this that you are doing for the people? Why do you sit alone, while all the people stand around you from morning until evening?” ¹⁵Moses said to his father‐in‐law, “Because the people come to me to inquire of God. ¹⁶When they have a dispute, they come to me and I decide between one person and another, and I make known to them the statutes and instructions of God.” ¹⁷Moses’ father‐in‐law said to him, “What you are doing is not good. ¹⁸You will surely wear yourself out, both you and these people with you. For the task is too heavy for you; you cannot do it alone. ¹⁹Now listen to me. I will give you counsel, and God be with you! You should represent the people before God, and you should bring their cases before God; ²⁰teach them the statutes and instructions and make known to them the way they are to go and the things they are to do. ²¹You should also look for able men among all the people, men who fear God, are trustworthy, and hate dishonest gain; set such men over them as officers over thousands, hundreds, fifties, and tens. ²²Let them sit as judges for the people at all times; let them bring every important case to you, but decide every minor case themselves. So it will be easier for you, and they will bear the burden with you. ²³If you do this, and God so commands you, then you will be able to endure, and all these people will go to their home in peace.”

²⁴So Moses listened to his father‐in‐law and did all that he had said. ²⁵Moses chose able men from all Israel and appointed them as heads over the people, as officers over thousands, hundreds, fifties, and tens. ²⁶And they judged the people at all times; hard cases they brought to Moses, but any minor case they decided themselves. ²⁷Then Moses let his father‐in‐law depart, and he went off to his own country.

¹⁹ On the third new moon after the Israelites had gone out of the land of Egypt, on that very day, they came into the wilderness of Sinai. ²They had journeyed from Rephidim, entered the wilderness of Sinai, and camped in the wilderness; Israel camped there in front of the mountain. ³Then Moses went up to God; the Lord called to him from the mountain, saying, “Thus you shall say to the house of Jacob, and tell the Israelites: ⁴You have seen what I did to the Egyptians, and how I bore you on eagles’ wings and brought you to myself. ⁵Now therefore, if you obey my voice and keep my covenant, you shall be my treasured possession out of all the peoples. Indeed, the whole earth is mine, ⁶but you shall be for me a priestly kingdom and a holy nation. These are the words that you shall speak to the Israelites.”

⁷So Moses came, summoned the elders of the people, and set before them all these words that the Lord had commanded him. ⁸The people all answered as one: “Everything that the Lord has spoken we will do.” Moses reported the words of the people to the Lord. ⁹Then the Lord said to Moses, “I am going to come to you in a dense cloud, in order that the people may hear when I speak with you and so trust you ever after.”

When Moses had told the words of the people to the Lord, ¹⁰the Lord said to Moses: “Go to the people and consecrate them today and tomorrow. Have them wash their clothes ¹¹and prepare for the third day, because on the third day the Lord will come down upon Mount Sinai in the sight of all the people. ¹²You shall set limits for the people all around, saying, ‘Be careful not to go up the mountain or to touch the edge of it. Any who touch the mountain shall be put to death. ¹³No hand shall touch them, but they shall be stoned or shot with arrows;^a whether animal or human being, they shall not live.’ When the trumpet sounds a long blast, they may go up on the mountain.” ¹⁴So Moses went down from the mountain to the people. He consecrated the people, and they washed their clothes. ¹⁵And he said to the people, “Prepare for the third day; do not go near a woman.”

¹⁶On the morning of the third day there was thunder and lightning, as well as a thick cloud on the mountain, and a blast of a trumpet so loud that all the people who were in the camp trembled. ¹⁷Moses brought the people out of the camp to meet God. They took their stand at the foot of the mountain. ¹⁸Now Mount Sinai was wrapped in smoke, because the Lord had descended upon it in fire; the smoke went up like the smoke of a kiln, while the whole mountain shook violently. ¹⁹As the blast of the trumpet grew louder and louder, Moses would speak and God would answer him in thunder. ²⁰When the Lord descended upon Mount Sinai, to the top of the mountain, the Lord summoned Moses to the top of the mountain, and Moses went up. ²¹Then the Lord said to Moses, “Go down and warn the people not to break through to the Lord to look; otherwise many of them will perish. ²²Even the priests who approach the Lord must consecrate themselves or the Lord will break out against them.” ²³Moses said to the Lord, “The people are not permitted to come up to Mount Sinai; for you yourself warned us, saying, ‘Set limits around the mountain and keep it holy.’” ²⁴The Lord said to him, “Go down, and come up bringing Aaron with you; but do not let either the priests or the people break through to come up to the Lord; otherwise he will break out against them.” ²⁵So Moses went down to the people and told them.

²⁰ Then God spoke all these words: ²I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery; ³you shall have no other gods before^a me.

⁴You shall not make for yourself an idol, whether in the form of anything that is in heaven above, or that is on the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth. ⁵You shall not bow down to them or worship them; for I the Lord your God am a jealous God, punishing children for the iniquity of parents, to the third and the fourth generation of those who reject me, ⁶but showing steadfast love to the thousandth generation^b of those who love me and keep my commandments.

⁷You shall not make wrongful use of the name of the Lord your God, for the Lord will not acquit anyone who misuses his name.

⁸Remember the sabbath day, and keep it holy. ⁹Six days you shall labor and do all your work. ¹⁰But the seventh day is a sabbath to the Lord your God; you shall not do any work—you, your son or your daughter, your male or female slave, your livestock, or the alien resident in your towns. ¹¹For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that is in them, but rested the seventh day; therefore the Lord blessed the sabbath day and consecrated it.

¹²Honor your father and your mother, so that your days may be long in the land that the Lord your God is giving you.

¹³You shall not murder.^a

¹⁴You shall not commit adultery.

¹⁵You shall not steal.

¹⁶You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor.

¹⁷You shall not covet your neighbor’s house; you shall not covet your neighbor’s wife, or male or female slave, or ox, or donkey, or anything that belongs to your neighbor.

¹⁸When all the people witnessed the thunder and lightning, the sound of the trumpet, and the mountain smoking, they were afraid^b and trembled and stood at a distance, ¹⁹and said to Moses, “You speak to us, and we will listen; but do not let God speak to us, or we will die.” ²⁰Moses said to the people, “Do not be afraid; for God has come only to test you and to put the fear of him upon you so that you do not sin.” ²¹Then the people stood at a distance, while Moses drew near to the thick darkness where God was.

²²The Lord said to Moses: Thus you shall say to the Israelites: “You have seen for yourselves that I spoke with you from heaven. ²³You shall not make gods of silver alongside me, nor shall you make for yourselves gods of gold. ²⁴You need make for me only an altar of earth and sacrifice on it your burnt offerings and your offerings of well‐being, your sheep and your oxen; in every place where I cause my name to be remembered I will come to you and bless you. ²⁵But if you make for me an altar of stone, do not build it of hewn stones; for if you use a chisel upon it you profane it. ²⁶You shall not go up by steps to my altar, so that your nakedness may not be exposed on it.”

²¹ These are the ordinances that you shall set before them: ²When you buy a male Hebrew slave, he shall serve six years, but in the seventh he shall go out a free person, without debt. ³If he comes in single, he shall go out single; if he comes in married, then his wife shall go out with him. ⁴If his master gives him a wife and she bears him sons or daughters, the wife and her children shall be her master’s and he shall go out alone. ⁵But if the slave declares, “I love my master, my wife, and my children; I will not go out a free person,” ⁶then his master shall bring him before God.^a He shall be brought to the door or the doorpost; and his master shall pierce his ear with an awl; and he shall serve him for life.

⁷When a man sells his daughter as a slave, she shall not go out as the male slaves do. ⁸If she does not please her master, who designated her for himself, then he shall let her be redeemed; he shall have no right to sell her to a foreign people, since he has dealt unfairly with her. ⁹If he designates her for his son, he shall deal with her as with a daughter. ¹⁰If he takes another wife to himself, he shall not diminish the food, clothing, or marital rights of the first wife.^{b 11}And if he does not do these three things for her, she shall go out without debt, without payment of money.

¹²Whoever strikes a person mortally shall be put to death. ¹³If it was not premeditated, but came about by an act of God, then I will appoint for you a place to which the killer may flee. ¹⁴But if someone willfully attacks and kills another by treachery, you shall take the killer from my altar for execution.

¹⁵Whoever strikes father or mother shall be put to death.

¹⁶Whoever kidnaps a person, whether that person has been sold or is still held in possession, shall be put to death.

¹⁷Whoever curses father or mother shall be put to death.

¹⁸When individuals quarrel and one strikes the other with a stone or fist so that the injured party, though not dead, is confined to bed, ¹⁹but recovers and walks around outside with the help of a staff, then the assailant shall be free of liability, except to pay for the loss of time, and to arrange for full recovery.

²⁰When a slaveowner strikes a male or female slave with a rod and the slave dies immediately, the owner shall be punished. ²¹But if the slave survives a day or two, there is no punishment; for the slave is the owner’s property.

²²When people who are fighting injure a pregnant woman so that there is a miscarriage, and yet no further harm follows, the one responsible shall be fined what the woman’s husband demands, paying as much as the judges determine. ²³If any harm follows, then you shall give life for life, ²⁴eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, ²⁵burn for burn, wound for wound, stripe for stripe.

²⁶When a slaveowner strikes the eye of a male or female slave, destroying it, the owner shall let the slave go, a free person, to compensate for the eye. ²⁷If the owner knocks out a tooth of a male or female slave, the slave shall be let go, a free person, to compensate for the tooth.

²⁸When an ox gores a man or a woman to death, the ox shall be stoned, and its flesh shall not be eaten; but the owner of the ox shall not be liable. ²⁹If the ox has been accustomed to gore in the past, and its owner has been warned but has not restrained it, and it kills a man or a woman, the ox shall be stoned, and its owner also shall be put to death. ³⁰If a ransom is imposed on the owner, then the owner shall pay whatever is imposed for the redemption of the victim’s life. ³¹If it gores a boy or a girl, the owner shall be dealt with according to this same rule. ³²If the ox gores a male or female slave, the owner shall pay to the slaveowner thirty shekels of silver, and the ox shall be stoned.

³³If someone leaves a pit open, or digs a pit and does not cover it, and an ox or a donkey falls into it, ³⁴the owner of the pit shall make restitution, giving money to its owner, but keeping the dead animal.

³⁵If someone’s ox hurts the ox of another, so that it dies, then they shall sell the live ox and divide the price of it; and the dead animal they shall also divide. ³⁶But if it was known that the ox was accustomed to gore in the past, and its owner has not restrained it, the owner shall restore ox for ox, but keep the dead animal.

^22a When someone steals an ox or a sheep, and slaughters it or sells it, the thief shall pay five oxen for an ox, and four sheep for a sheep.^b The thief shall make restitution, but if unable to do so, shall be sold for the theft. ⁴When the animal, whether ox or donkey or sheep, is found alive in the thief’s possession, the thief shall pay double.

^2cIf a thief is found breaking in, and is beaten to death, no bloodguilt is incurred; ³but if it happens after sunrise, bloodguilt is incurred.

⁵When someone causes a field or vineyard to be grazed over, or lets livestock loose to graze in someone else’s field, restitution shall be made from the best in the owner’s field or vineyard.

⁶When fire breaks out and catches in thorns so that the stacked grain or the standing grain or the field is consumed, the one who started the fire shall make full restitution.

⁷When someone delivers to a neighbor money or goods for safekeeping, and they are stolen from the neighbor’s house, then the thief, if caught, shall pay double. ⁸If the thief is not caught, the owner of the house shall be brought before God,^a to determine whether or not the owner had laid hands on the neighbor’s goods.

⁹In any case of disputed ownership involving ox, donkey, sheep, clothing, or any other loss, of which one party says, “This is mine,” the case of both parties shall come before God;^a the one whom God condemns^b shall pay double to the other.

¹⁰When someone delivers to another a donkey, ox, sheep, or any other animal for safekeeping, and it dies or is injured or is carried off, without anyone seeing it, ¹¹an oath before the Lord shall decide between the two of them that the one has not laid hands on the property of the other; the owner shall accept the oath, and no restitution shall be made. ¹²But if it was stolen, restitution shall be made to its owner. ¹³If it was mangled by beasts, let it be brought as evidence; restitution shall not be made for the mangled remains.

¹⁴When someone borrows an animal from another and it is injured or dies, the owner not being present, full restitution shall be made. ¹⁵If the owner was present, there shall be no restitution; if it was hired, only the hiring fee is due.

¹⁶When a man seduces a virgin who is not engaged to be married, and lies with her, he shall give the bride‐price for her and make her his wife. ¹⁷But if her father refuses to give her to him, he shall pay an amount equal to the bride‐price for virgins.

¹⁸You shall not permit a female sorcerer to live.

¹⁹Whoever lies with an animal shall be put to death.

²⁰Whoever sacrifices to any god, other than the Lord alone, shall be devoted to destruction.

²¹You shall not wrong or oppress a resident alien, for you were aliens in the land of Egypt. ²²You shall not abuse any widow or orphan. ²³If you do abuse them, when they cry out to me, I will surely heed their cry; ²⁴my wrath will burn, and I will kill you with the sword, and your wives shall become widows and your children orphans.

²⁵If you lend money to my people, to the poor among you, you shall not deal with them as a creditor; you shall not exact interest from them. ²⁶If you take your neighbor’s cloak in pawn, you shall restore it before the sun goes down; ²⁷for it may be your neighbor’s only clothing to use as cover; in what else shall that person sleep? And if your neighbor cries out to me, I will listen, for I am compassionate.

²⁸You shall not revile God, or curse a leader of your people.

²⁹You shall not delay to make offerings from the fullness of your harvest and from the outflow of your presses.^a

The firstborn of your sons you shall give to me. ³⁰You shall do the same with your oxen and with your sheep: seven days it shall remain with its mother; on the eighth day you shall give it to me.

³¹You shall be people consecrated to me; therefore you shall not eat any meat that is mangled by beasts in the field; you shall throw it to the dogs.

²³ You shall not spread a false report. You shall not join hands with the wicked to act as a malicious witness.² You shall not follow a majority in wrongdoing; when you bear witness in a lawsuit, you shall not side with the majority so as to pervert justice; ³nor shall you be partial to the poor in a lawsuit.

⁴When you come upon your enemy’s ox or donkey going astray, you shall bring it back.

⁵When you see the donkey of one who hates you lying under its burden and you would hold back from setting it free, you must help to set it free.^a

⁶You shall not pervert the justice due to your poor in their lawsuits. ⁷Keep far from a false charge, and do not kill the innocent and those in the right, for I will not acquit the guilty. ⁸You shall take no bribe, for a bribe blinds the officials, and subverts the cause of those who are in the right.

⁹You shall not oppress a resident alien; you know the heart of an alien, for you were aliens in the land of Egypt.

¹⁰For six years you shall sow your land and gather in its yield; ¹¹but the seventh year you shall let it rest and lie fallow, so that the poor of your people may eat; and what they leave the wild animals may eat. You shall do the same with your vineyard, and with your olive orchard.

¹²Six days you shall do your work, but on the seventh day you shall rest, so that your ox and your donkey may have relief, and your homeborn slave and the resident alien may be refreshed. ¹³Be attentive to all that I have said to you. Do not invoke the names of other gods; do not let them be heard on your lips.

¹⁴Three times in the year you shall hold a festival for me. ¹⁵You shall observe the festival of unleavened bread; as I commanded you, you shall eat unleavened bread for seven days at the appointed time in the month of Abib, for in it you came out of Egypt.

No one shall appear before me emptyhanded.

¹⁶You shall observe the festival of harvest, of the first fruits of your labor, of what you sow in the field. You shall observe the festival of ingathering at the end of the year, when you gather in from the field the fruit of your labor. ¹⁷Three times in the year all your males shall appear before the Lord God.

¹⁸You shall not offer the blood of my sacrifice with anything leavened, or let the fat of my festival remain until the morning.

¹⁹The choicest of the first fruits of your ground you shall bring into the house of the Lord your God.

You shall not boil a kid in its mother’s milk.

²⁰I am going to send an angel in front of you, to guard you on the way and to bring you to the place that I have prepared. ²¹Be attentive to him and listen to his voice; do not rebel against him, for he will not pardon your transgression; for my name is in him.

²²But if you listen attentively to his voice and do all that I say, then I will be an enemy to your enemies and a foe to your foes.

²³When my angel goes in front of you, and brings you to the Amorites, the Hittites, the Perizzites, the Canaanites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites, and I blot them out, ²⁴you shall not bow down to their gods, or worship them, or follow their practices, but you shall utterly demolish them and break their pillars in pieces. ²⁵You shall worship the Lord your God, and I^a will bless your bread and your water; and I will take sickness away from among you. ²⁶No one shall miscarry or be barren in your land; I will fulfill the number of your days. ²⁷I will send my terror in front of you, and will throw into confusion all the people against whom you shall come, and I will make all your enemies turn their backs to you. ²⁸And I will send the pestilence^b in front of you, which shall drive out the Hivites, the Canaanites, and the Hittites from before you. ²⁹I will not drive them out from before you in one year, or the land would become desolate and the wild animals would multiply against you. ³⁰Little by little I will drive them out from before you, until you have increased and possess the land. ³¹I will set your borders from the Red Sea^c to the sea of the Philistines, and from the wilderness to the Euphrates; for I will hand over to you the inhabitants of the land, and you shall drive them out before you. ³²You shall make no covenant with them and their gods. ³³They shall not live in your land, or they will make you sin against me; for if you worship their gods, it will surely be a snare to you.

²⁴ Then he said to Moses, “Come up to the Lord, you and Aaron, Nadab, and Abihu, and seventy of the elders of Israel, and worship at a distance. ²Moses alone shall come near the Lord; but the others shall not come near, and the people shall not come up with him.”

³Moses came and told the people all the words of the Lord and all the ordinances; and all the people answered with one voice, and said, “All the words that the Lord has spoken we will do.” ⁴And Moses wrote down all the words of the Lord. He rose early in the morning, and built an altar at the foot of the mountain, and set up twelve pillars, corresponding to the twelve tribes of Israel. ⁵He sent young men of the people of Israel, who offered burnt offerings and sacrificed oxen as offerings of well‐being to the Lord. ⁶Moses took half of the blood and put it in basins, and half of the blood he dashed against the altar. ⁷Then he took the book of the covenant, and read it in the hearing of the people; and they said, “All that the Lord has spoken we will do, and we will be obedient.” ⁸Moses took the blood and dashed it on the people, and said, “See the blood of the covenant that the Lord has made with you in accordance with all these words.”

⁹Then Moses and Aaron, Nadab, and Abihu, and seventy of the elders of Israel went up, ¹⁰and they saw the God of Israel. Under his feet there was something like a pavement of sapphire stone, like the very heaven for clearness. ¹¹God^a did not lay his hand on the chief men of the people of Israel; also they beheld God, and they ate and drank.

¹²The Lord said to Moses, “Come up to me on the mountain, and wait there; and I will give you the tablets of stone, with the law and the commandment, which I have written for their instruction.” ¹³So Moses set out with his assistant Joshua, and Moses went up into the mountain of God. ¹⁴To the elders he had said, “Wait here for us, until we come to you again; for Aaron and Hur are with you; whoever has a dispute may go to them.”

¹⁵Then Moses went up on the mountain, and the cloud covered the mountain. ¹⁶The glory of the Lord settled on Mount Sinai, and the cloud covered it for six days; on the seventh day he called to Moses out of the cloud. ¹⁷Now the appearance of the glory of the Lord was like a devouring fire on the top of the mountain in the sight of the people of Israel. ¹⁸Moses entered the cloud, and went up on the mountain. Moses was on the mountain for forty days and forty nights.

²⁵ The Lord said to Moses: ²Tell the Israelites to take for me an offering; from all whose hearts prompt them to give you shall receive the offering for me. ³This is the offering that you shall receive from them: gold, silver, and bronze, ⁴blue, purple, and crimson yarns and fine linen, goats’ hair, ⁵tanned rams’ skins, fine leather,^a acacia wood, ⁶oil for the lamps, spices for the anointing oil and for the fragrant incense, ⁷onyx stones and gems to be set in the ephod and for the breastpiece. ⁸And have them make me a sanctuary, so that I may dwell among them. ⁹In accordance with all that I show you concerning the pattern of the tabernacle and of all its furniture, so you shall make it.

¹⁰They shall make an ark of acacia wood; it shall be two and a half cubits long, a cubit and a half wide, and a cubit and a half high. ¹¹You shall overlay it with pure gold, inside and outside you shall overlay it, and you shall make a molding of gold upon it all around. ¹²You shall cast four rings of gold for it and put them on its four feet, two rings on the one side of it, and two rings on the other side. ¹³You shall make poles of acacia wood, and overlay them with gold. ¹⁴And you shall put the poles into the rings on the sides of the ark, by which to carry the ark. ¹⁵The poles shall remain in the rings of the ark; they shall not be taken from it. ¹⁶You shall put into the ark the covenant^b that I shall give you.

Chs 25–31; 36–39: The structure of the Tabernacle as described in the book of Exodus

¹⁷Then you shall make a mercy seat^a of pure gold; two cubits and a half shall be its length, and a cubit and a half its width. ¹⁸You shall make two cherubim of gold; you shall make them of hammered work, at the two ends of the mercy seat.^{b 19}Make one cherub at the one end, and one cherub at the other; of one piece with the mercy seat^b you shall make the cherubim at its two ends. ²⁰The cherubim shall spread out their wings above, overshadowing the mercy seat^b with their wings. They shall face one to another; the faces of the cherubim shall be turned toward the mercy seat.^b21You shall put the mercy seat^b on the top of the ark; and in the ark you shall put the covenant^c that I shall give you. ²²There I will meet with you, and from above the mercy seat,^b from between the two cherubim that are on the ark of the covenant,^c I will deliver to you all my commands for the Israelites.

²³You shall make a table of acacia wood, two cubits long, one cubit wide, and a cubit and a half high. ²⁴You shall overlay it with pure gold, and make a molding of gold around it. ²⁵You shall make around it a rim a handbreadth wide, and a molding of gold around the rim. ²⁶You shall make for it four rings of gold, and fasten the rings to the four corners at its four legs. ²⁷The rings that hold the poles used for carrying the table shall be close to the rim. ²⁸You shall make the poles of acacia wood, and overlay them with gold, and the table shall be carried with these. ²⁹You shall make its plates and dishes for incense, and its flagons and bowls with which to pour drink offerings; you shall make them of pure gold. ³⁰And you shall set the bread of the Presence on the table before me always.

³¹You shall make a lampstand of pure gold. The base and the shaft of the lampstand shall be made of hammered work; its cups, its calyxes, and its petals shall be of one piece with it; ³²and there shall be six branches going out of its sides, three branches of the lampstand out of one side of it and three branches of the lampstand out of the other side of it; ³³three cups shaped like almond blossoms, each with calyx and petals, on one branch, and three cups shaped like almond blossoms, each with calyx and petals, on the other branch—so for the six branches going out of the lampstand. ³⁴On the lampstand itself there shall be four cups shaped like almond blossoms, each with its calyxes and petals. ³⁵There shall be a calyx of one piece with it under the first pair of branches, a calyx of one piece with it under the next pair of branches, and a calyx of one piece with it under the last pair of branches—so for the six branches that go out of the lampstand. ³⁶Their calyxes and their branches shall be of one piece with it, the whole of it one hammered piece of pure gold. ³⁷You shall make the seven lamps for it; and the lamps shall be set up so as to give light on the space in front of it. ³⁸Its snuffers and trays shall be of pure gold. ³⁹It, and all these utensils, shall be made from a talent of pure gold. ⁴⁰And see that you make them according to the pattern for them, which is being shown you on the mountain.

²⁶ Moreover you shall make the tabernacle with ten curtains of fine twisted linen, and blue, purple, and crimson yarns; you shall make them with cherubim skillfully worked into them. ²The length of each curtain shall be twenty‐eight cubits, and the width of each curtain four cubits; all the curtains shall be of the same size. ³Five curtains shall be joined to one another; and the other five curtains shall be joined to one another. ⁴You shall make loops of blue on the edge of the outermost curtain in the first set; and likewise you shall make loops on the edge of the outermost curtain in the second set. ⁵You shall make fifty loops on the one curtain, and you shall make fifty loops on the edge of the curtain that is in the second set; the loops shall be opposite one another. ⁶You shall make fifty clasps of gold, and join the curtains to one another with the clasps, so that the tabernacle may be one whole.

⁷You shall also make curtains of goats’ hair for a tent over the tabernacle; you shall make eleven curtains. ⁸The length of each curtain shall be thirty cubits, and the width of each curtain four cubits; the eleven curtains shall be of the same size. ⁹You shall join five curtains by themselves, and six curtains by themselves, and the sixth curtain you shall double over at the front of the tent. ¹⁰You shall make fifty loops on the edge of the curtain that is outermost in one set, and fifty loops on the edge of the curtain that is outermost in the second set.

¹¹You shall make fifty clasps of bronze, and put the clasps into the loops, and join the tent together, so that it may be one whole. ¹²The part that remains of the curtains of the tent, the half curtain that remains, shall hang over the back of the tabernacle. ¹³The cubit on the one side, and the cubit on the other side, of what remains in the length of the curtains of the tent, shall hang over the sides of the tabernacle, on this side and that side, to cover it. ¹⁴You shall make for the tent a covering of tanned rams’ skins and an outer covering of fine leather.^a

¹⁵You shall make upright frames of acacia wood for the tabernacle. ¹⁶Ten cubits shall be the length of a frame, and a cubit and a half the width of each frame. ¹⁷There shall be two pegs in each frame to fit the frames together; you shall make these for all the frames of the tabernacle. ¹⁸You shall make the frames for the tabernacle: twenty frames for the south side; ¹⁹and you shall make forty bases of silver under the twenty frames, two bases under the first frame for its two pegs, and two bases under the next frame for its two pegs; ²⁰and for the second side of the tabernacle, on the north side twenty frames, ²¹and their forty bases of silver, two bases under the first frame, and two bases under the next frame; ²²and for the rear of the tabernacle westward you shall make six frames. ²³You shall make two frames for corners of the tabernacle in the rear; ²⁴they shall be separate beneath, but joined at the top, at the first ring; it shall be the same with both of them; they shall form the two corners. ²⁵And so there shall be eight frames, with their bases of silver, sixteen bases; two bases under the first frame, and two bases under the next frame.

²⁶You shall make bars of acacia wood, five for the frames of the one side of the tabernacle, ²⁷and five bars for the frames of the other side of the tabernacle, and five bars for the frames of the side of the tabernacle at the rear westward. ²⁸The middle bar, halfway up the frames, shall pass through from end to end. ²⁹You shall overlay the frames with gold, and shall make their rings of gold to hold the bars; and you shall overlay the bars with gold. ³⁰Then you shall erect the tabernacle according to the plan for it that you were shown on the mountain.

³¹You shall make a curtain of blue, purple, and crimson yarns, and of fine twisted linen; it shall be made with cherubim skillfully worked into it. ³²You shall hang it on four pillars of acacia overlaid with gold, which have hooks of gold and rest on four bases of silver. ³³You shall hang the curtain under the clasps, and bring the ark of the covenant^b in there, within the curtain; and the curtain shall separate for you the holy place from the most holy. ³⁴You shall put the mercy seat^c on the ark of the covenant^b in the most holy place. ³⁵You shall set the table outside the curtain, and the lampstand on the south side of the tabernacle opposite the table; and you shall put the table on the north side.

³⁶You shall make a screen for the entrance of the tent, of blue, purple, and crimson yarns, and of fine twisted linen, embroidered with needlework. ³⁷You shall make for the screen five pillars of acacia, and overlay them with gold; their hooks shall be of gold, and you shall cast five bases of bronze for them.

²⁷ You shall make the altar of acacia wood, five cubits long and five cubits wide; the altar shall be square, and it shall be three cubits high. ²You shall make horns for it on its four corners; its horns shall be of one piece with it, and you shall overlay it with bronze. ³You shall make pots for it to receive its ashes, and shovels and basins and forks and firepans; you shall make all its utensils of bronze. ⁴You shall also make for it a grating, a network of bronze; and on the net you shall make four bronze rings at its four corners. ⁵You shall set it under the ledge of the altar so that the net shall extend halfway down the altar. ⁶You shall make poles for the altar, poles of acacia wood, and overlay them with bronze; ⁷the poles shall be put through the rings, so that the poles shall be on the two sides of the altar when it is carried. ⁸You shall make it hollow, with boards. They shall be made just as you were shown on the mountain.

⁹You shall make the court of the tabernacle. On the south side the court shall have hangings of fine twisted linen one hundred cubits long for that side; ¹⁰its twenty pillars and their twenty bases shall be of bronze, but the hooks of the pillars and their bands shall be of silver. ¹¹Likewise for its length on the north side there shall be hangings one hundred cubits long, their pillars twenty and their bases twenty, of bronze, but the hooks of the pillars and their bands shall be of silver. ¹²For the width of the court on the west side there shall be fifty cubits of hangings, with ten pillars and ten bases. ¹³The width of the court on the front to the east shall be fifty cubits. ¹⁴There shall be fifteen cubits of hangings on the one side, with three pillars and three bases. ¹⁵There shall be fifteen cubits of hangings on the other side, with three pillars and three bases. ¹⁶For the gate of the court there shall be a screen twenty cubits long, of blue, purple, and crimson yarns, and of fine twisted linen, embroidered with needlework; it shall have four pillars and with them four bases. ¹⁷All the pillars around the court shall be banded with silver; their hooks shall be of silver, and their bases of bronze. ¹⁸The length of the court shall be one hundred cubits, the width fifty, and the height five cubits, with hangings of fine twisted linen and bases of bronze. ¹⁹All the utensils of the tabernacle for every use, and all its pegs and all the pegs of the court, shall be of bronze.

²⁰You shall further command the Israelites to bring you pure oil of beaten olives for the light, so that a lamp may be set up to burn regularly. ²¹In the tent of meeting, outside the curtain that is before the covenant,^a Aaron and his sons shall tend it from evening to morning before the Lord. It shall be a perpetual ordinance to be observed throughout their generations by the Israelites.

²⁸ Then bring near to you your brother Aaron, and his sons with him, from among the Israelites, to serve me as priests—Aaron and Aaron’s sons, Nadab and Abihu, Eleazar and Ithamar. ²You shall make sacred vestments for the glorious adornment of your brother Aaron. ³And you shall speak to all who have ability, whom I have endowed with skill, that they make Aaron’s vestments to consecrate him for my priesthood. ⁴These are the vestments that they shall make: a breastpiece, an ephod, a robe, a checkered tunic, a turban, and a sash. When they make these sacred vestments for your brother Aaron and his sons to serve me as priests, ⁵they shall use gold, blue, purple, and crimson yarns, and fine linen.

⁶They shall make the ephod of gold, of blue, purple, and crimson yarns, and of fine twisted linen, skillfully worked. ⁷It shall have two shoulder‐pieces attached to its two edges, so that it may be joined together. ⁸The decorated band on it shall be of the same workmanship and materials, of gold, of blue, purple, and crimson yarns, and of fine twisted linen. ⁹You shall take two onyx stones, and engrave on them the names of the sons of Israel, ¹⁰six of their names on the one stone, and the names of the remaining six on the other stone, in the order of their birth. ¹¹As a gem‐cutter engraves signets, so you shall engrave the two stones with the names of the sons of Israel; you shall mount them in settings of gold filigree. ¹²You shall set the two stones on the shoulder‐pieces of the ephod, as stones of remembrance for the sons of Israel; and Aaron shall bear their names before the Lord on his two shoulders for remembrance. ¹³You shall make settings of gold filigree, ¹⁴and two chains of pure gold, twisted like cords; and you shall attach the corded chains to the settings.

¹⁵You shall make a breastpiece of judgment, in skilled work; you shall make it in the style of the ephod; of gold, of blue and purple and crimson yarns, and of fine twisted linen you shall make it. ¹⁶It shall be square and doubled, a span in length and a span in width. ¹⁷You shall set in it four rows of stones. A row of carnelian,^a chrysolite, and emerald shall be the first row; ¹⁸and the second row a turquoise, a sapphire,^b and a moonstone; ¹⁹and the third row a jacinth, an agate, and an amethyst; ²⁰and the fourth row a beryl, an onyx, and a jasper; they shall be set in gold filigree. ²¹There shall be twelve stones with names corresponding to the names of the sons of Israel; they shall be like signets, each engraved with its name, for the twelve tribes. ²²You shall make for the breastpiece chains of pure gold, twisted like cords; ²³and you shall make for the breastpiece two rings of gold, and put the two rings on the two edges of the breastpiece. ²⁴You shall put the two cords of gold in the two rings at the edges of the breastpiece; ²⁵the two ends of the two cords you shall attach to the two settings, and so attach it in front to the shoulder‐pieces of the ephod. ²⁶You shall make two rings of gold, and put them at the two ends of the breastpiece, on its inside edge next to the ephod. ²⁷You shall make two rings of gold, and attach them in front to the lower part of the two shoulder‐pieces of the ephod, at its joining above the decorated band of the ephod. ²⁸The breastpiece shall be bound by its rings to the rings of the ephod with a blue cord, so that it may lie on the decorated band of the ephod, and so that the breastpiece shall not come loose from the ephod. ²⁹So Aaron shall bear the names of the sons of Israel in the breastpiece of judgment on his heart when he goes into the holy place, for a continual remembrance before the Lord. ³⁰In the breastpiece of judgment you shall put the Urim and the Thummim, and they shall be on Aaron’s heart when he goes in before the Lord; thus Aaron shall bear the judgment of the Israelites on his heart before the Lord continually.

³¹You shall make the robe of the ephod all of blue. ³²It shall have an opening for the head in the middle of it, with a woven binding around the opening, like the opening in a coat of mail,^a so that it may not be torn. ³³On its lower hem you shall make pomegranates of blue, purple, and crimson yarns, all around the lower hem, with bells of gold between them all around— ³⁴a golden bell and a pomegranate alternating all around the lower hem of the robe. ³⁵Aaron shall wear it when he ministers, and its sound shall be heard when he goes into the holy place before the Lord, and when he comes out, so that he may not die.

³⁶You shall make a rosette of pure gold, and engrave on it, like the engraving of a signet, “Holy to the Lord.” ³⁷You shall fasten it on the turban with a blue cord; it shall be on the front of the turban. ³⁸It shall be on Aaron’s forehead, and Aaron shall take on himself any guilt incurred in the holy offering that the Israelites consecrate as their sacred donations; it shall always be on his forehead, in order that they may find favor before the Lord.

³⁹You shall make the checkered tunic of fine linen, and you shall make a turban of fine linen, and you shall make a sash embroidered with needlework.

⁴⁰For Aaron’s sons you shall make tunics and sashes and headdresses; you shall make them for their glorious adornment. ⁴¹You shall put them on your brother Aaron, and on his sons with him, and shall anoint them and ordain them and consecrate them, so that they may serve me as priests. ⁴²You shall make for them linen undergarments to cover their naked flesh; they shall reach from the hips to the thighs; ⁴³Aaron and his sons shall wear them when they go into the tent of meeting, or when they come near the altar to minister in the holy place; or they will bring guilt on themselves and die. This shall be a perpetual ordinance for him and for his descendants after him.

²⁹ Now this is what you shall do to them to consecrate them, so that they may serve me as priests. Take one young bull and two rams without blemish, ²and unleavened bread, unleavened cakes mixed with oil, and unleavened wafers spread with oil. You shall make them of choice wheat flour. ³You shall put them in one basket and bring them in the basket, and bring the bull and the two rams. ⁴You shall bring Aaron and his sons to the entrance of the tent of meeting, and wash them with water. ⁵Then you shall take the vestments, and put on Aaron the tunic and the robe of the ephod, and the ephod, and the breastpiece, and gird him with the decorated band of the ephod; ⁶and you shall set the turban on his head, and put the holy diadem on the turban. ⁷You shall take the anointing oil, and pour it on his head and anoint him. ⁸Then you shall bring his sons, and put tunics on them, ⁹and you shall gird them with sashes^a and tie headdresses on them; and the priesthood shall be theirs by a perpetual ordinance. You shall then ordain Aaron and his sons.

¹⁰You shall bring the bull in front of the tent of meeting. Aaron and his sons shall lay their hands on the head of the bull, ¹¹and you shall slaughter the bull before the Lord, at the entrance of the tent of meeting, ¹²and shall take some of the blood of the bull and put it on the horns of the altar with your finger, and all the rest of the blood you shall pour out at the base of the altar. ¹³You shall take all the fat that covers the entrails, and the appendage of the liver, and the two kidneys with the fat that is on them, and turn them into smoke on the altar. ¹⁴But the flesh of the bull, and its skin, and its dung, you shall burn with fire outside the camp; it is a sin offering.

¹⁵Then you shall take one of the rams, and Aaron and his sons shall lay their hands on the head of the ram, ¹⁶and you shall slaughter the ram, and shall take its blood and dash it against all sides of the altar. ¹⁷Then you shall cut the ram into its parts, and wash its entrails and its legs, and put them with its parts and its head, ¹⁸and turn the whole ram into smoke on the altar; it is a burnt offering to the Lord; it is a pleasing odor, an offering by fire to the Lord.

¹⁹You shall take the other ram; and Aaron and his sons shall lay their hands on the head of the ram, ²⁰and you shall slaughter the ram, and take some of its blood and put it on the lobe of Aaron’s right ear and on the lobes of the right ears of his sons, and on the thumbs of their right hands, and on the big toes of their right feet, and dash the rest of the blood against all sides of the altar. ²¹Then you shall take some of the blood that is on the altar, and some of the anointing oil, and sprinkle it on Aaron and his vestments and on his sons and his sons’ vestments with him; then he and his vestments shall be holy, as well as his sons and his sons’ vestments.

²²You shall also take the fat of the ram, the fat tail, the fat that covers the entrails, the appendage of the liver, the two kidneys with the fat that is on them, and the right thigh (for it is a ram of ordination), ²³and one loaf of bread, one cake of bread made with oil, and one wafer, out of the basket of unleavened bread that is before the Lord; ²⁴and you shall place all these on the palms of Aaron and on the palms of his sons, and raise them as an elevation offering before the Lord. ²⁵Then you shall take them from their hands, and turn them into smoke on the altar on top of the burnt offering of pleasing odor before the Lord; it is an offering by fire to the Lord.

²⁶You shall take the breast of the ram of Aaron’s ordination and raise it as an elevation offering before the Lord; and it shall be your portion. ²⁷You shall consecrate the breast that was raised as an elevation offering and the thigh that was raised as an elevation offering from the ram of ordination, from that which belonged to Aaron and his sons. ²⁸These things shall be a perpetual ordinance for Aaron and his sons from the Israelites, for this is an offering; and it shall be an offering by the Israelites from their sacrifice of offerings of well‐being, their offering to the Lord.

²⁹The sacred vestments of Aaron shall be passed on to his sons after him; they shall be anointed in them and ordained in them. ³⁰The son who is priest in his place shall wear them seven days, when he comes into the tent of meeting to minister in the holy place.

³¹You shall take the ram of ordination, and boil its flesh in a holy place; ³²and Aaron and his sons shall eat the flesh of the ram and the bread that is in the basket, at the entrance of the tent of meeting. ³³They themselves shall eat the food by which atonement is made, to ordain and consecrate them, but no one else shall eat of them, because they are holy. ³⁴If any of the flesh for the ordination, or of the bread, remains until the morning, then you shall burn the remainder with fire; it shall not be eaten, because it is holy.

³⁵Thus you shall do to Aaron and to his sons, just as I have commanded you; through seven days you shall ordain them. ³⁶Also every day you shall offer a bull as a sin offering for atonement. Also you shall offer a sin offering for the altar, when you make atonement for it, and shall anoint it, to consecrate it. ³⁷Seven days you shall make atonement for the altar, and consecrate it, and the altar shall be most holy; whatever touches the altar shall become holy.

³⁸Now this is what you shall offer on the altar: two lambs a year old regularly each day. ³⁹One lamb you shall offer in the morning, and the other lamb you shall offer in the evening; ⁴⁰and with the first lamb one‐tenth of a measure of choice flour mixed with onefourth of a hin of beaten oil, and one‐fourth of a hin of wine for a drink offering. ⁴¹And the other lamb you shall offer in the evening, and shall offer with it a grain offering and its drink offering, as in the morning, for a pleasing odor, an offering by fire to the Lord. ⁴²It shall be a regular burnt offering throughout your generations at the entrance of the tent of meeting before the Lord, where I will meet with you, to speak to you there. ⁴³I will meet with the Israelites there, and it shall be sanctified by my glory; ⁴⁴I will consecrate the tent of meeting and the altar; Aaron also and his sons I will consecrate, to serve me as priests. ⁴⁵I will dwell among the Israelites, and I will be their God. ⁴⁶And they shall know that I am the Lord their God, who brought them out of the land of Egypt that I might dwell among them; I am the Lord their God.

³⁰ You shall make an altar on which to offer incense; you shall make it of acacia wood. ²It shall be one cubit long, and one cubit wide; it shall be square, and shall be two cubits high; its horns shall be of one piece with it. ³You shall overlay it with pure gold, its top, and its sides all around and its horns; and you shall make for it a molding of gold all around. ⁴And you shall make two golden rings for it; under its molding on two opposite sides of it you shall make them, and they shall hold the poles with which to carry it. ⁵You shall make the poles of acacia wood, and overlay them with gold. ⁶You shall place it in front of the curtain that is above the ark of the covenant,^a in front of the mercy seat^b that is over the covenant,^a where I will meet with you. ⁷Aaron shall offer fragrant incense on it; every morning when he dresses the lamps he shall offer it, ⁸and when Aaron sets up the lamps in the evening, he shall offer it, a regular incense offering before the Lord throughout your generations. ⁹You shall not offer unholy incense on it, or a burnt offering, or a grain offering; and you shall not pour a drink offering on it. ¹⁰Once a year Aaron shall perform the rite of atonement on its horns. Throughout your generations he shall perform the atonement for it once a year with the blood of the atoning sin offering. It is most holy to the Lord.

¹¹The Lord spoke to Moses: ¹²When you take a census of the Israelites to register them, at registration all of them shall give a ransom for their lives to the Lord, so that no plague may come upon them for being registered. ¹³This is what each one who is registered shall give: half a shekel according to the shekel of the sanctuary (the shekel is twenty gerahs), half a shekel as an offering to the Lord. ¹⁴Each one who is registered, from twenty years old and upward, shall give the Lord’s offering. ¹⁵The rich shall not give more, and the poor shall not give less, than the half shekel, when you bring this offering to the Lord to make atonement for your lives. ¹⁶You shall take the atonement money from the Israelites and shall designate it for the service of the tent of meeting; before the Lord it will be a reminder to the Israelites of the ransom given for your lives.

¹⁷The Lord spoke to Moses: ¹⁸You shall make a bronze basin with a bronze stand for washing. You shall put it between the tent of meeting and the altar, and you shall put water in it; ¹⁹with the water^c Aaron and his sons shall wash their hands and their feet. ²⁰When they go into the tent of meeting, or when they come near the altar to minister, to make an offering by fire to the Lord, they shall wash with water, so that they may not die. ²¹They shall wash their hands and their feet, so that they may not die: it shall be a perpetual ordinance for them, for him and for his descendants throughout their generations.

²²The Lord spoke to Moses: ²³Take the finest spices: of liquid myrrh five hundred shekels, and of sweet‐smelling cinnamon half as much, that is, two hundred fifty, and two hundred fifty of aromatic cane, ²⁴and five hundred of cassia—measured by the sanctuary shekel—and a hin of olive oil; ²⁵and you shall make of these a sacred anointing oil blended as by the perfumer; it shall be a holy anointing oil. ²⁶With it you shall anoint the tent of meeting and the ark of the covenant,^a27and the table and all its utensils, and the lampstand and its utensils, and the altar of incense, ²⁸and the altar of burnt offering with all its utensils, and the basin with its stand; ²⁹you shall consecrate them, so that they may be most holy; whatever touches them will become holy. ³⁰You shall anoint Aaron and his sons, and consecrate them, in order that they may serve me as priests. ³¹You shall say to the Israelites, “This shall be my holy anointing oil throughout your generations. ³²It shall not be used in any ordinary anointing of the body, and you shall make no other like it in composition; it is holy, and it shall be holy to you. ³³Whoever compounds any like it or whoever puts any of it on an unqualified person shall be cut off from the people.”

³⁴The Lord said to Moses: Take sweet spices, stacte, and onycha, and galbanum, sweet spices with pure frankincense (an equal part of each), ³⁵and make an incense blended as by the perfumer, seasoned with salt, pure and holy; ³⁶and you shall beat some of it into powder, and put part of it before the covenant^a in the tent of meeting where I shall meet with you; it shall be for you most holy. ³⁷When you make incense according to this composition, you shall not make it for yourselves; it shall be regarded by you as holy to the Lord. ³⁸Whoever makes any like it to use as perfume shall be cut off from the people.

³¹ The Lord spoke to Moses: ²See, I have called by name Bezalel son of Uri son of Hur, of the tribe of Judah: ³and I have filled him with divine spirit,^b with ability, intelligence, and knowledge in every kind of craft, ⁴to devise artistic designs, to work in gold, silver, and bronze, ⁵in cutting stones for setting, and in carving wood, in every kind of craft. ⁶Moreover, I have appointed with him Oholiab son of Ahisamach, of the tribe of Dan; and I have given skill to all the skillful, so that they may make all that I have commanded you: ⁷the tent of meeting, and the ark of the covenant,^a and the mercy seat^c that is on it, and all the furnishings of the tent, ⁸the table and its utensils, and the pure lampstand with all its utensils, and the altar of incense, ⁹and the altar of burnt offering with all its utensils, and the basin with its stand, ¹⁰and the finely worked vestments, the holy vestments for the priest Aaron and the vestments of his sons, for their service as priests, ¹¹and the anointing oil and the fragrant incense for the holy place. They shall do just as I have commanded you.

¹²The Lord said to Moses: ¹³You yourself are to speak to the Israelites: “You shall keep my sabbaths, for this is a sign between me and you throughout your generations, given in order that you may know that I, the Lord, sanctify you. ¹⁴You shall keep the sabbath, because it is holy for you; everyone who profanes it shall be put to death; whoever does any work on it shall be cut off from among the people. ¹⁵Six days shall work be done, but the seventh day is a sabbath of solemn rest, holy to the Lord; whoever does any work on the sabbath day shall be put to death. ¹⁶Therefore the Israelites shall keep the sabbath, observing the sabbath throughout their generations, as a perpetual covenant. ¹⁷It is a sign forever between me and the people of Israel that in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, and on the seventh day he rested, and was refreshed.”

¹⁸When God^d finished speaking with Moses on Mount Sinai, he gave him the two tablets of the covenant,^a tablets of stone, written with the finger of God.

³² When the people saw that Moses delayed to come down from the mountain, the people gathered around Aaron, and said to him, “Come, make gods for us, who shall go before us; as for this Moses, the man who brought us up out of the land of Egypt, we do not know what has become of him.” ²Aaron said to them, “Take off the gold rings that are on the ears of your wives, your sons, and your daughters, and bring them to me.” ³So all the people took off the gold rings from their ears, and brought them to Aaron. ⁴He took the gold from them, formed it in a mold,^a and cast an image of a calf; and they said, “These are your gods, O Israel, who brought you up out of the land of Egypt!” ⁵When Aaron saw this, he built an altar before it; and Aaron made proclamation and said, “Tomorrow shall be a festival to the Lord.” ⁶They rose early the next day, and offered burnt offerings and brought sacrifices of well‐being; and the people sat down to eat and drink, and rose up to revel.

⁷The Lord said to Moses, “Go down at once! Your people, whom you brought up out of the land of Egypt, have acted perversely; ⁸they have been quick to turn aside from the way that I commanded them; they have cast for themselves an image of a calf, and have worshiped it and sacrificed to it, and said, ‘These are your gods, O Israel, who brought you up out of the land of Egypt!’” ⁹The Lord said to Moses, “I have seen this people, how stiff‐necked they are. ¹⁰Now let me alone, so that my wrath may burn hot against them and I may consume them; and of you I will make a great nation.”

¹¹But Moses implored the Lord his God, and said, “O Lord, why does your wrath burn hot against your people, whom you brought out of the land of Egypt with great power and with a mighty hand? ¹²Why should the Egyptians say, ‘It was with evil intent that he brought them out to kill them in the mountains, and to consume them from the face of the earth’? Turn from your fierce wrath; change your mind and do not bring disaster on your people. ¹³Remember Abraham, Isaac, and Israel, your servants, how you swore to them by your own self, saying to them, ‘I will multiply your descendants like the stars of heaven, and all this land that I have promised I will give to your descendants, and they shall inherit it forever.’” ¹⁴And the Lord changed his mind about the disaster that he planned to bring on his people.

¹⁵Then Moses turned and went down from the mountain, carrying the two tablets of the covenant^a in his hands, tablets that were written on both sides, written on the front and on the back. ¹⁶The tablets were the work of God, and the writing was the writing of God, engraved upon the tablets. ¹⁷When Joshua heard the noise of the people as they shouted, he said to Moses, “There is a noise of war in the camp.” ¹⁸But he said,

“It is not the sound made by victors,

or the sound made by losers;

it is the sound of revelers that I hear.”

¹⁹As soon as he came near the camp and saw the calf and the dancing, Moses’ anger burned hot, and he threw the tablets from his hands and broke them at the foot of the mountain. ²⁰He took the calf that they had made, burned it with fire, ground it to powder, scattered it on the water, and made the Israelites drink it.

²¹Moses said to Aaron, “What did this people do to you that you have brought so great a sin upon them?” ²²And Aaron said, “Do not let the anger of my lord burn hot; you know the people, that they are bent on evil. ²³They said to me, ‘Make us gods, who shall go before us; as for this Moses, the man who brought us up out of the land of Egypt, we do not know what has become of him.’ ²⁴So I said to them, ‘Whoever has gold, take it off’; so they gave it to me, and I threw it into the fire, and out came this calf!”

²⁵When Moses saw that the people were running wild (for Aaron had let them run wild, to the derision of their enemies), ²⁶then Moses stood in the gate of the camp, and said, “Who is on the Lord’s side? Come to me!” And all the sons of Levi gathered around him. ²⁷He said to them, “Thus says the Lord, the God of Israel, ‘Put your sword on your side, each of you! Go back and forth from gate to gate throughout the camp, and each of you kill your brother, your friend, and your neighbor.’” ²⁸The sons of Levi did as Moses commanded, and about three thousand of the people fell on that day. ²⁹Moses said, “Today you have ordained yourselves^b for the service of the Lord, each one at the cost of a son or a brother, and so have brought a blessing on yourselves this day.”

³⁰On the next day Moses said to the people, “You have sinned a great sin. But now I will go up to the Lord; perhaps I can make atonement for your sin.” ³¹So Moses returned to the Lord and said, “Alas, this people has sinned a great sin; they have made for themselves gods of gold. ³²But now, if you will only forgive their sin—but if not, blot me out of the book that you have written.” ³³But the Lord said to Moses, “Whoever has sinned against me I will blot out of my book. ³⁴But now go, lead the people to the place about which I have spoken to you; see, my angel shall go in front of you. Nevertheless, when the day comes for punishment, I will punish them for their sin.”

³⁵Then the Lord sent a plague on the people, because they made the calf—the one that Aaron made.

³³ The Lord said to Moses, “Go, leave this place, you and the people whom you have brought up out of the land of Egypt, and go to the land of which I swore to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, saying, ‘To your descendants I will give it.’ ²I will send an angel before you, and I will drive out the Canaanites, the Amorites, the Hittites, the Perizzites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites. ³Go up to a land flowing with milk and honey; but I will not go up among you, or I would consume you on the way, for you are a stiff‐necked people.”

⁴When the people heard these harsh words, they mourned, and no one put on ornaments. ⁵For the Lord had said to Moses, “Say to the Israelites, ‘You are a stiff‐necked people; if for a single moment I should go up among you, I would consume you. So now take off your ornaments, and I will decide what to do to you.’” ⁶Therefore the Israelites stripped themselves of their ornaments, from Mount Horeb onward.

⁷Now Moses used to take the tent and pitch it outside the camp, far off from the camp; he called it the tent of meeting. And everyone who sought the Lord would go out to the tent of meeting, which was outside the camp. ⁸Whenever Moses went out to the tent, all the people would rise and stand, each of them, at the entrance of their tents and watch Moses until he had gone into the tent. ⁹When Moses entered the tent, the pillar of cloud would descend and stand at the entrance of the tent, and the Lord would speak with Moses. ¹⁰When all the people saw the pillar of cloud standing at the entrance of the tent, all the people would rise and bow down, all of them, at the entrance of their tent. ¹¹Thus the Lord used to speak to Moses face to face, as one speaks to a friend. Then he would return to the camp; but his young assistant, Joshua son of Nun, would not leave the tent.

¹²Moses said to the Lord, “See, you have said to me, ‘Bring up this people’; but you have not let me know whom you will send with me. Yet you have said, ‘I know you by name, and you have also found favor in my sight.’ ¹³Now if I have found favor in your sight, show me your ways, so that I may know you and find favor in your sight. Consider too that this nation is your people.” ¹⁴He said, “My presence will go with you, and I will give you rest.” ¹⁵And he said to him, “If your presence will not go, do not carry us up from here. ¹⁶For how shall it be known that I have found favor in your sight, I and your people, unless you go with us? In this way, we shall be distinct, I and your people, from every people on the face of the earth.”

¹⁷The Lord said to Moses, “I will do the very thing that you have asked; for you have found favor in my sight, and I know you by name.” ¹⁸Moses said, “Show me your glory, I pray.” ¹⁹And he said, “I will make all my goodness pass before you, and will proclaim before you the name, ‘The Lord’;^a and I will be gracious to whom I will be gracious, and will show mercy on whom I will show mercy. ²⁰But,” he said, “you cannot see my face; for no one shall see me and live.” ²¹And the Lord continued, “See, there is a place by me where you shall stand on the rock; ²²and while my glory passes by I will put you in a cleft of the rock, and I will cover you with my hand until I have passed by; ²³then I will take away my hand, and you shall see my back; but my face shall not be seen.”

³⁴ The Lord said to Moses, “Cut two tablets of stone like the former ones, and I will write on the tablets the words that were on the former tablets, which you broke. ²Be ready in the morning, and come up in the morning to Mount Sinai and present yourself there to me, on the top of the mountain. ³No one shall come up with you, and do not let anyone be seen throughout all the mountain; and do not let flocks or herds graze in front of that mountain.” ⁴So Moses cut two tablets of stone like the former ones; and he rose early in the morning and went up on Mount Sinai, as the Lord had commanded him, and took in his hand the two tablets of stone. ⁵The Lord descended in the cloud and stood with him there, and proclaimed the name, “The Lord.”^{a 6}The Lord passed before him, and proclaimed,

“The Lord, the Lord,

a God merciful and gracious,

slow to anger,

and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness,

⁷keeping steadfast love for the thousandth generation,^b

forgiving iniquity and transgression and sin,

yet by no means clearing the guilty,

but visiting the iniquity of the parents

upon the children

and the children’s children,

to the third and the fourth generation.”

⁸And Moses quickly bowed his head toward the earth, and worshiped. ⁹He said, “If now I have found favor in your sight, O Lord, I pray, let the Lord go with us. Although this is a stiff‐necked people, pardon our iniquity and our sin, and take us for your inheritance.”

¹⁰He said: I hereby make a covenant. Before all your people I will perform marvels, such as have not been performed in all the earth or in any nation; and all the people among whom you live shall see the work of the Lord; for it is an awesome thing that I will do with you.

¹¹Observe what I command you today. See, I will drive out before you the Amorites, the Canaanites, the Hittites, the Perizzites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites. ¹²Take care not to make a covenant with the inhabitants of the land to which you are going, or it will become a snare among you. ¹³You shall tear down their altars, break their pillars, and cut down their sacred poles^{c 14}(for you shall worship no other god, because the Lord, whose name is Jealous, is a jealous God). ¹⁵You shall not make a covenant with the inhabitants of the land, for when they prostitute themselves to their gods and sacrifice to their gods, someone among them will invite you, and you will eat of the sacrifice. ¹⁶And you will take wives from among their daughters for your sons, and their daughters who prostitute themselves to their gods will make your sons also prostitute themselves to their gods.

¹⁷You shall not make cast idols.

¹⁸You shall keep the festival of unleavened bread. Seven days you shall eat unleavened bread, as I commanded you, at the time appointed in the month of Abib; for in the month of Abib you came out from Egypt.

¹⁹All that first opens the womb is mine, all your male^a livestock, the firstborn of cow and sheep. ²⁰The firstborn of a donkey you shall redeem with a lamb, or if you will not redeem it you shall break its neck. All the firstborn of your sons you shall redeem.

No one shall appear before me emptyhanded.

²¹Six days you shall work, but on the seventh day you shall rest; even in plowing time and in harvest time you shall rest. ²²You shall observe the festival of weeks, the first fruits of wheat harvest, and the festival of ingathering at the turn of the year. ²³Three times in the year all your males shall appear before the Lord God, the God of Israel. ²⁴For I will cast out nations before you, and enlarge your borders; no one shall covet your land when you go up to appear before the Lord your God three times in the year.

²⁵You shall not offer the blood of my sacrifice with leaven, and the sacrifice of the festival of the passover shall not be left until the morning.

²⁶The best of the first fruits of your ground you shall bring to the house of the Lord your God.

You shall not boil a kid in its mother’s milk.

²⁷The Lord said to Moses: Write these words; in accordance with these words I have made a covenant with you and with Israel. ²⁸He was there with the Lord forty days and forty nights; he neither ate bread nor drank water. And he wrote on the tablets the words of the covenant, the ten commandments.^b

²⁹Moses came down from Mount Sinai. As he came down from the mountain with the two tablets of the covenant^c in his hand, Moses did not know that the skin of his face shone because he had been talking with God. ³⁰When Aaron and all the Israelites saw Moses, the skin of his face was shining, and they were afraid to come near him. ³¹But Moses called to them; and Aaron and all the leaders of the congregation returned to him, and Moses spoke with them. ³²Afterward all the Israelites came near, and he gave them in commandment all that the Lord had spoken with him on Mount Sinai. ³³When Moses had finished speaking with them, he put a veil on his face; ³⁴but whenever Moses went in before the Lord to speak with him, he would take the veil off, until he came out; and when he came out, and told the Israelites what he had been commanded, ³⁵the Israelites would see the face of Moses, that the skin of his face was shining; and Moses would put the veil on his face again, until he went in to speak with him.

³⁵ Moses assembled all the congregation of the Israelites and said to them: These are the things that the Lord has commanded you to do:

²Six days shall work be done, but on the seventh day you shall have a holy sabbath of solemn rest to the Lord; whoever does any work on it shall be put to death. ³You shall kindle no fire in all your dwellings on the sabbath day.

⁴Moses said to all the congregation of the Israelites: This is the thing that the Lord has commanded: ⁵Take from among you an offering to the Lord; let whoever is of a generous heart bring the Lord’s offering: gold, silver, and bronze; ⁶blue, purple, and crimson yarns, and fine linen; goats’ hair, ⁷tanned rams’ skins, and fine leather;^a acacia wood, ⁸oil for the light, spices for the anointing oil and for the fragrant incense, ⁹and onyx stones and gems to be set in the ephod and the breastpiece.

¹⁰All who are skillful among you shall come and make all that the Lord has commanded: the tabernacle, ¹¹its tent and its covering, its clasps and its frames, its bars, its pillars, and its bases; ¹²the ark with its poles, the mercy seat,^b and the curtain for the screen; ¹³the table with its poles and all its utensils, and the bread of the Presence; ¹⁴the lampstand also for the light, with its utensils and its lamps, and the oil for the light; ¹⁵and the altar of incense, with its poles, and the anointing oil and the fragrant incense, and the screen for the entrance, the entrance of the tabernacle; ¹⁶the altar of burnt offering, with its grating of bronze, its poles, and all its utensils, the basin with its stand; ¹⁷the hangings of the court, its pillars and its bases, and the screen for the gate of the court; ¹⁸the pegs of the tabernacle and the pegs of the court, and their cords; ¹⁹the finely worked vestments for ministering in the holy place, the holy vestments for the priest Aaron, and the vestments of his sons, for their service as priests.

²⁰Then all the congregation of the Israelites withdrew from the presence of Moses. ²¹And they came, everyone whose heart was stirred, and everyone whose spirit was willing, and brought the Lord’s offering to be used for the tent of meeting, and for all its service, and for the sacred vestments. ²²So they came, both men and women; all who were of a willing heart brought brooches and earrings and signet rings and pendants, all sorts of gold objects, everyone bringing an offering of gold to the Lord. ²³And everyone who possessed blue or purple or crimson yarn or fine linen or goats’ hair or tanned rams’ skins or fine leather,^a brought them. ²⁴Everyone who could make an offering of silver or bronze brought it as the Lord’s offering; and everyone who possessed acacia wood of any use in the work, brought it. ²⁵All the skillful women spun with their hands, and brought what they had spun in blue and purple and crimson yarns and fine linen; ²⁶all the women whose hearts moved them to use their skill spun the goats’ hair. ²⁷And the leaders brought onyx stones and gems to be set in the ephod and the breastpiece, ²⁸and spices and oil for the light, and for the anointing oil, and for the fragrant incense. ²⁹All the Israelite men and women whose hearts made them willing to bring anything for the work that the Lord had commanded by Moses to be done, brought it as a freewill offering to the Lord.

³⁰Then Moses said to the Israelites: See, the Lord has called by name Bezalel son of Uri son of Hur, of the tribe of Judah; ³¹he has filled him with divine spirit,^a with skill, intelligence, and knowledge in every kind of craft, ³²to devise artistic designs, to work in gold, silver, and bronze, ³³in cutting stones for setting, and in carving wood, in every kind of craft. ³⁴And he has inspired him to teach, both him and Oholiab son of Ahisamach, of the tribe of Dan. ³⁵He has filled them with skill to do every kind of work done by an artisan or by a designer or by an embroiderer in blue, purple, and crimson yarns, and in fine linen, or by a weaver—by any sort of artisan or skilled designer.

³⁶ Bezalel and Oholiab and every skillful one to whom the Lord has given skill and understanding to know how to do any work in the construction of the sanctuary shall work in accordance with all that the Lord has commanded.

²Moses then called Bezalel and Oholiab and every skillful one to whom the Lord had given skill, everyone whose heart was stirred to come to do the work; ³and they received from Moses all the freewill offerings that the Israelites had brought for doing the work on the sanctuary. They still kept bringing him freewill offerings every morning, ⁴so that all the artisans who were doing every sort of task on the sanctuary came, each from the task being performed, ⁵and said to Moses, “The people are bringing much more than enough for doing the work that the Lord has commanded us to do.” ⁶So Moses gave command, and word was proclaimed throughout the camp: “No man or woman is to make anything else as an offering for the sanctuary.” So the people were restrained from bringing; ⁷for what they had already brought was more than enough to do all the work.

⁸All those with skill among the workers made the tabernacle with ten curtains; they were made of fine twisted linen, and blue, purple, and crimson yarns, with cherubim skillfully worked into them. ⁹The length of each curtain was twenty‐eight cubits, and the width of each curtain four cubits; all the curtains were of the same size.

¹⁰He joined five curtains to one another, and the other five curtains he joined to one another. ¹¹He made loops of blue on the edge of the outermost curtain of the first set; likewise he made them on the edge of the outermost curtain of the second set; ¹²he made fifty loops on the one curtain, and he made fifty loops on the edge of the curtain that was in the second set; the loops were opposite one another. ¹³And he made fifty clasps of gold, and joined the curtains one to the other with clasps; so the tabernacle was one whole.

¹⁴He also made curtains of goats’ hair for a tent over the tabernacle; he made eleven curtains. ¹⁵The length of each curtain was thirty cubits, and the width of each curtain four cubits; the eleven curtains were of the same size. ¹⁶He joined five curtains by themselves, and six curtains by themselves. ¹⁷He made fifty loops on the edge of the outermost curtain of the one set, and fifty loops on the edge of the other connecting curtain. ¹⁸He made fifty clasps of bronze to join the tent together so that it might be one whole. ¹⁹And he made for the tent a covering of tanned rams’ skins and an outer covering of fine leather.^a

²⁰Then he made the upright frames for the tabernacle of acacia wood. ²¹Ten cubits was the length of a frame, and a cubit and a half the width of each frame. ²²Each frame had two pegs for fitting together; he did this for all the frames of the tabernacle. ²³The frames for the tabernacle he made in this way: twenty frames for the south side; ²⁴and he made forty bases of silver under the twenty frames, two bases under the first frame for its two pegs, and two bases under the next frame for its two pegs. ²⁵For the second side of the tabernacle, on the north side, he made twenty frames ²⁶and their forty bases of silver, two bases under the first frame and two bases under the next frame. ²⁷For the rear of the tabernacle westward he made six frames. ²⁸He made two frames for corners of the tabernacle in the rear. ²⁹They were separate beneath, but joined at the top, at the first ring; he made two of them in this way, for the two corners. ³⁰There were eight frames with their bases of silver: sixteen bases, under every frame two bases.

³¹He made bars of acacia wood, five for the frames of the one side of the tabernacle, ³²and five bars for the frames of the other side of the tabernacle, and five bars for the frames of the tabernacle at the rear westward. ³³He made the middle bar to pass through from end to end halfway up the frames. ³⁴And he overlaid the frames with gold, and made rings of gold for them to hold the bars, and overlaid the bars with gold.

³⁵He made the curtain of blue, purple, and crimson yarns, and fine twisted linen, with cherubim skillfully worked into it. ³⁶For it he made four pillars of acacia, and overlaid them with gold; their hooks were of gold, and he cast for them four bases of silver. ³⁷He also made a screen for the entrance to the tent, of blue, purple, and crimson yarns, and fine twisted linen, embroidered with needlework; ³⁸and its five pillars with their hooks. He overlaid their capitals and their bases with gold, but their five bases were of bronze.

³⁷ Bezalel made the ark of acacia wood; it was two and a half cubits long, a cubit and a half wide, and a cubit and a half high. ²He overlaid it with pure gold inside and outside, and made a molding of gold around it. ³He cast for it four rings of gold for its four feet, two rings on its one side and two rings on its other side. ⁴He made poles of acacia wood, and overlaid them with gold, ⁵and put the poles into the rings on the sides of the ark, to carry the ark. ⁶He made a mercy seat^b of pure gold; two cubits and a half was its length, and a cubit and a half its width. ⁷He made two cherubim of hammered gold; at the two ends of the mercy seat^c he made them, ⁸one cherub at the one end, and one cherub at the other end; of one piece with the mercy seat^c he made the cherubim at its two ends. ⁹The cherubim spread out their wings above, overshadowing the mercy seat^c with their wings. They faced one another; the faces of the cherubim were turned toward the mercy seat.^c

¹⁰He also made the table of acacia wood, two cubits long, one cubit wide, and a cubit and a half high. ¹¹He overlaid it with pure gold, and made a molding of gold around it. ¹²He made around it a rim a handbreadth wide, and made a molding of gold around the rim. ¹³He cast for it four rings of gold, and fastened the rings to the four corners at its four legs. ¹⁴The rings that held the poles used for carrying the table were close to the rim. ¹⁵He made the poles of acacia wood to carry the table, and overlaid them with gold. ¹⁶And he made the vessels of pure gold that were to be on the table, its plates and dishes for incense, and its bowls and flagons with which to pour drink offerings.

¹⁷He also made the lampstand of pure gold. The base and the shaft of the lampstand were made of hammered work; its cups, its calyxes, and its petals were of one piece with it. ¹⁸There were six branches going out of its sides, three branches of the lampstand out of one side of it and three branches of the lampstand out of the other side of it; ¹⁹three cups shaped like almond blossoms, each with calyx and petals, on one branch, and three cups shaped like almond blossoms, each with calyx and petals, on the other branch—so for the six branches going out of the lampstand. ²⁰On the lampstand itself there were four cups shaped like almond blossoms, each with its calyxes and petals. ²¹There was a calyx of one piece with it under the first pair of branches, a calyx of one piece with it under the next pair of branches, and a calyx of one piece with it under the last pair of branches. ²²Their calyxes and their branches were of one piece with it, the whole of it one hammered piece of pure gold. ²³He made its seven lamps and its snuffers and its trays of pure gold. ²⁴He made it and all its utensils of a talent of pure gold.

²⁵He made the altar of incense of acacia wood, one cubit long, and one cubit wide; it was square, and was two cubits high; its horns were of one piece with it. ²⁶He overlaid it with pure gold, its top, and its sides all around, and its horns; and he made for it a molding of gold all around, ²⁷and made two golden rings for it under its molding, on two opposite sides of it, to hold the poles with which to carry it. ²⁸And he made the poles of acacia wood, and overlaid them with gold.

²⁹He made the holy anointing oil also, and the pure fragrant incense, blended as by the perfumer.

³⁸ He made the altar of burnt offering also of acacia wood; it was five cubits long, and five cubits wide; it was square, and three cubits high. ²He made horns for it on its four corners; its horns were of one piece with it, and he overlaid it with bronze. ³He made all the utensils of the altar, the pots, the shovels, the basins, the forks, and the firepans: all its utensils he made of bronze. ⁴He made for the altar a grating, a network of bronze, under its ledge, extending halfway down. ⁵He cast four rings on the four corners of the bronze grating to hold the poles; ⁶he made the poles of acacia wood, and overlaid them with bronze. ⁷And he put the poles through the rings on the sides of the altar, to carry it with them; he made it hollow, with boards.

⁸He made the basin of bronze with its stand of bronze, from the mirrors of the women who served at the entrance to the tent of meeting.

⁹He made the court; for the south side the hangings of the court were of fine twisted linen, one hundred cubits long; ¹⁰its twenty pillars and their twenty bases were of bronze, but the hooks of the pillars and their bands were of silver. ¹¹For the north side there were hangings one hundred cubits long; its twenty pillars and their twenty bases were of bronze, but the hooks of the pillars and their bands were of silver. ¹²For the west side there were hangings fifty cubits long, with ten pillars and ten bases; the hooks of the pillars and their bands were of silver. ¹³And for the front to the east, fifty cubits. ¹⁴The hangings for one side of the gate were fifteen cubits, with three pillars and three bases. ¹⁵And so for the other side; on each side of the gate of the court were hangings of fifteen cubits, with three pillars and three bases. ¹⁶All the hangings around the court were of fine twisted linen. ¹⁷The bases for the pillars were of bronze, but the hooks of the pillars and their bands were of silver; the overlaying of their capitals was also of silver, and all the pillars of the court were banded with silver. ¹⁸The screen for the entrance to the court was embroidered with needlework in blue, purple, and crimson yarns and fine twisted linen. It was twenty cubits long and, along the width of it, five cubits high, corresponding to the hangings of the court. ¹⁹There were four pillars; their four bases were of bronze, their hooks of silver, and the overlaying of their capitals and their bands of silver. ²⁰All the pegs for the tabernacle and for the court all around were of bronze.

²¹These are the records of the tabernacle, the tabernacle of the covenant,^a which were drawn up at the commandment of Moses, the work of the Levites being under the direction of Ithamar son of the priest Aaron. ²²Bezalel son of Uri son of Hur, of the tribe of Judah, made all that the Lord commanded Moses; ²³and with him was Oholiab son of Ahisamach, of the tribe of Dan, engraver, designer, and embroiderer in blue, purple, and crimson yarns, and in fine linen.

²⁴All the gold that was used for the work, in all the construction of the sanctuary, the gold from the offering, was twenty‐nine talents and seven hundred thirty shekels, measured by the sanctuary shekel. ²⁵The silver from those of the congregation who were counted was one hundred talents and one thousand seven hundred seventy‐five shekels, measured by the sanctuary shekel; ²⁶a beka a head (that is, half a shekel, measured by the sanctuary shekel), for everyone who was counted in the census, from twenty years old and upward, for six hundred three thousand, five hundred fifty men. ²⁷The hundred talents of silver were for casting the bases of the sanctuary, and the bases of the curtain; one hundred bases for the hundred talents, a talent for a base. ²⁸Of the thousand seven hundred seventy‐five shekels he made hooks for the pillars, and overlaid their capitals and made bands for them. ²⁹The bronze that was contributed was seventy talents, and two thousand four hundred shekels; ³⁰with it he made the bases for the entrance of the tent of meeting, the bronze altar and the bronze grating for it and all the utensils of the altar, ³¹the bases all around the court, and the bases of the gate of the court, all the pegs of the tabernacle, and all the pegs around the court.

³⁹ Of the blue, purple, and crimson yarns they made finely worked vestments, for ministering in the holy place; they made the sacred vestments for Aaron; as the Lord had commanded Moses.

²He made the ephod of gold, of blue, purple, and crimson yarns, and of fine twisted linen. ³Gold leaf was hammered out and cut into threads to work into the blue, purple, and crimson yarns and into the fine twisted linen, in skilled design. ⁴They made for the ephod shoulder‐pieces, joined to it at its two edges. ⁵The decorated band on it was of the same materials and workmanship, of gold, of blue, purple, and crimson yarns, and of fine twisted linen; as the Lord had commanded Moses.

⁶The onyx stones were prepared, enclosed in settings of gold filigree and engraved like the engravings of a signet, according to the names of the sons of Israel. ⁷He set them on the shoulder‐pieces of the ephod, to be stones of remembrance for the sons of Israel; as the Lord had commanded Moses.

⁸He made the breastpiece, in skilled work, like the work of the ephod, of gold, of blue, purple, and crimson yarns, and of fine twisted linen. ⁹It was square; the breastpiece was made double, a span in length and a span in width when doubled. ¹⁰They set in it four rows of stones. A row of carnelian,^a chrysolite, and emerald was the first row; ¹¹and the second row, a turquoise, a sapphire,^b and a moonstone; ¹²and the third row, a jacinth, an agate, and an amethyst; ¹³and the fourth row, a beryl, an onyx, and a jasper; they were enclosed in settings of gold filigree. ¹⁴There were twelve stones with names corresponding to the names of the sons of Israel; they were like signets, each engraved with its name, for the twelve tribes. ¹⁵They made on the breastpiece chains of pure gold, twisted like cords; ¹⁶and they made two settings of gold filigree and two gold rings, and put the two rings on the two edges of the breastpiece; ¹⁷and they put the two cords of gold in the two rings at the edges of the breastpiece. ¹⁸Two ends of the two cords they had attached to the two settings of filigree; in this way they attached it in front to the shoulder‐pieces of the ephod. ¹⁹Then they made two rings of gold, and put them at the two ends of the breastpiece, on its inside edge next to the ephod. ²⁰They made two rings of gold, and attached them in front to the lower part of the two shoulder‐pieces of the ephod, at its joining above the decorated band of the ephod. ²¹They bound the breastpiece by its rings to the rings of the ephod with a blue cord, so that it should lie on the decorated band of the ephod, and that the breastpiece should not come loose from the ephod; as the Lord had commanded Moses.

²²He also made the robe of the ephod woven all of blue yarn; ²³and the opening of the robe in the middle of it was like the opening in a coat of mail,^c with a binding around the opening, so that it might not be torn. ²⁴On the lower hem of the robe they made pomegranates of blue, purple, and crimson yarns, and of fine twisted linen. ²⁵They also made bells of pure gold, and put the bells between the pomegranates on the lower hem of the robe all around, between the pomegranates; ²⁶a bell and a pomegranate, a bell and a pomegranate all around on the lower hem of the robe for ministering; as the Lord had commanded Moses.

²⁷They also made the tunics, woven of fine linen, for Aaron and his sons, ²⁸and the turban of fine linen, and the headdresses of fine linen, and the linen undergarments of fine twisted linen, ²⁹and the sash of fine twisted linen, and of blue, purple, and crimson yarns, embroidered with needlework; as the Lord had commanded Moses.

³⁰They made the rosette of the holy diadem of pure gold, and wrote on it an inscription, like the engraving of a signet, “Holy to the Lord.” ³¹They tied to it a blue cord, to fasten it on the turban above; as the Lord had commanded Moses.

³²In this way all the work of the tabernacle of the tent of meeting was finished; the Israelites had done everything just as the Lord had commanded Moses. ³³Then they brought the tabernacle to Moses, the tent and all its utensils, its hooks, its frames, its bars, its pillars, and its bases; ³⁴the covering of tanned rams’ skins and the covering of fine leather,^c and the curtain for the screen; ³⁵the ark of the covenant^a with its poles and the mercy seat;^b36the table with all its utensils, and the bread of the Presence; ³⁷the pure lampstand with its lamps set on it and all its utensils, and the oil for the light; ³⁸the golden altar, the anointing oil and the fragrant incense, and the screen for the entrance of the tent; ³⁹the bronze altar, and its grating of bronze, its poles, and all its utensils; the basin with its stand; ⁴⁰the hangings of the court, its pillars, and its bases, and the screen for the gate of the court, its cords, and its pegs; and all the utensils for the service of the tabernacle, for the tent of meeting; ⁴¹the finely worked vestments for ministering in the holy place, the sacred vestments for the priest Aaron, and the vestments of his sons to serve as priests. ⁴²The Israelites had done all of the work just as the Lord had commanded Moses. ⁴³When Moses saw that they had done all the work just as the Lord had commanded, he blessed them.

⁴⁰ The Lord spoke to Moses: ²On the first day of the first month you shall set up the tabernacle of the tent of meeting. ³You shall put in it the ark of the covenant,^a and you shall screen the ark with the curtain. ⁴You shall bring in the table, and arrange its setting; and you shall bring in the lampstand, and set up its lamps. ⁵You shall put the golden altar for incense before the ark of the covenant,^a and set up the screen for the entrance of the tabernacle. ⁶You shall set the altar of burnt offering before the entrance of the tabernacle of the tent of meeting, ⁷and place the basin between the tent of meeting and the altar, and put water in it. ⁸You shall set up the court all around, and hang up the screen for the gate of the court. ⁹Then you shall take the anointing oil, and anoint the tabernacle and all that is in it, and consecrate it and all its furniture, so that it shall become holy. ¹⁰You shall also anoint the altar of burnt offering and all its utensils, and consecrate the altar, so that the altar shall be most holy. ¹¹You shall also anoint the basin with its stand, and consecrate it. ¹²Then you shall bring Aaron and his sons to the entrance of the tent of meeting, and shall wash them with water, ¹³and put on Aaron the sacred vestments, and you shall anoint him and consecrate him, so that he may serve me as priest. ¹⁴You shall bring his sons also and put tunics on them, ¹⁵and anoint them, as you anointed their father, that they may serve me as priests: and their anointing shall admit them to a perpetual priesthood throughout all generations to come.

¹⁶Moses did everything just as the Lord had commanded him. ¹⁷In the first month in the second year, on the first day of the month, the tabernacle was set up. ¹⁸Moses set up the tabernacle; he laid its bases, and set up its frames, and put in its poles, and raised up its pillars; ¹⁹and he spread the tent over the tabernacle, and put the covering of the tent over it; as the Lord had commanded Moses. ²⁰He took the covenant^a and put it into the ark, and put the poles on the ark, and set the mercy seat^b above the ark; ²¹and he brought the ark into the tabernacle, and set up the curtain for screening, and screened the ark of the covenant;^a as the Lord had commanded Moses. ²²He put the table in the tent of meeting, on the north side of the tabernacle, outside the curtain, ²³and set the bread in order on it before the Lord; as the Lord had commanded Moses. ²⁴He put the lampstand in the tent of meeting, opposite the table on the south side of the tabernacle, ²⁵and set up the lamps before the Lord; as the Lord had commanded Moses. ²⁶He put the golden altar in the tent of meeting before the curtain, ²⁷and offered fragrant incense on it; as the Lord had commanded Moses. ²⁸He also put in place the screen for the entrance of the tabernacle. ²⁹He set the altar of burnt offering at the entrance of the tabernacle of the tent of meeting, and offered on it the burnt offering and the grain offering as the Lord had commanded Moses. ³⁰He set the basin between the tent of meeting and the altar, and put water in it for washing, ³¹with which Moses and Aaron and his sons washed their hands and their feet. ³²When they went into the tent of meeting, and when they approached the altar, they washed; as the Lord had commanded Moses. ³³He set up the court around the tabernacle and the altar, and put up the screen at the gate of the court. So Moses finished the work.

³⁴Then the cloud covered the tent of meeting, and the glory of the Lord filled the tabernacle. ³⁵Moses was not able to enter the tent of meeting because the cloud settled upon it, and the glory of the Lord filled the tabernacle. ³⁶Whenever the cloud was taken up from the tabernacle, the Israelites would set out on each stage of their journey; ³⁷but if the cloud was not taken up, then they did not set out until the day that it was taken up. ³⁸For the cloud of the Lord was on the tabernacle by day, and fire was in the cloud^a by night, before the eyes of all the house of Israel at each stage of their journey.

1.1–15.21: Israel in and out of Egypt. The Israelites are oppressed in Egypt; but they escape through the intervention of their God, whose identity is revealed to their heroic leader Moses, who then carries out God’s directives to secure their release.

1.1–22: The oppression of the Israelites. The introductory chapter, preceding the birth of Moses, connects Exodus with Genesis and serves as a prologue to the story of deliverance by describing how the Israelites became oppressed (in fulfillment of Gen 15.13). 1–7: A shortened recapitulation of the account in Gen 46.8–27 of Jacob’s family relocating in Egypt. 1: Israel here refers to the patriarch Jacob (see Gen 32.28). 2–4: Jacob’s sons, the ancestors of the twelve tribes of Israel, are listed by groups according to their mothers (see Gen 29.31–30.24; 35.16–20,23–26): Leah’s six sons; Rachel’s second son; two sons each of the handmaids Bilhah and Zilpah; and Rachel’s firstborn Joseph, the one with a position of power in the Egyptian court (Gen 41.37–45). 5: Because the number seven and its multiples symbolize totality, the notion of seventy descendants of Jacob signifies that all Israel is present in Egypt (cf. Gen 46.27; Deut 10.22). 7: The language of Israelite increase echoes God’s commands at creation (Gen 1.28) and after the flood (Gen 9.1,7) and also God’s promises to the ancestors (Gen 12.2; 17.2; 22.17; 28.14; 48.4), suggesting that originally broader divine promises are now fulfilled through Israel. 8–14: The Egyptian ruler considers Israelite population growth a threat and attempts to restrict it, first by subjecting the Israelites to forced labor. 8: The new king is often identified as Rameses II (1279–1213 bce), but he is not named here or anywhere in the Bible. This anonymity, which perhaps demeans him, gives the narrative a general character. 10: The possibility of escape is mentioned, foreshadowing what will eventually happen. 11: Forced labor refers to corvée or compulsory unpaid labor, a typical way to mobilize labor for state projects in the ancient Near East (e.g., 1 Kings 5.13). Supply cities in border areas served military purposes. Pithom and Rameses were probably located in the eastern Nile Delta, protecting the northeastern frontier of Egypt; attempts to identify them with sites dating to the reign of Rameses II are inconclusive. 13–14: Words using the Heb root meaning “to serve” appear five times in these two verses (translated imposing tasks, service, labor, tasks, and imposed), emphasizing the difficult lives of the Israelites; they are forced to work in state agriculture as well as construction. 15–22: Forced labor fails to deplete the Israelite population, so another strategy, selective infanticide, is implemented. 15: Hebrew seems to denote Israelites as a people, often in the speech of non‐Israelites (e.g., Gen 14.13; Ex 21.2; 1 Sam 29.3), where it may be a derogatory term. Shiphrah and Puah are the first two of twelve women featured in the life of Moses, the deliverer of the twelve tribes. Some interpreters and ancient traditions consider them Egyptians who are “midwives to the Hebrews” rather than Hebrew midwives, but their Semitic names make it more likely that they are Hebrews. 16: Birthstool, probably the two bricks or stones on which parturient women squatted; that position facilitated delivery. The instruction to kill infant boys, not girls, in order to limit population growth suggests the king’s ineptitude and introduces the violence that will recur in the ensuing story of oppression and liberation. 17: Feared God indicates an awareness that killing would cause divine retribution. Heb Elohim is used for the deity here and often in the non‐Priestly parts of Exodus, suggesting that much of the narrative derives from the E (Elohist) source. 22: Every boy … you shall throw into the Nile, the final strategy for depleting the Israelite population, anticipates the appearance of the baby Moses.

2.1–25: The emergence of Moses. 1–10: As in the birth legends of other heroic figures in ancient literature, the miraculous rescue of the doomed infant Moses signifies that he is destined for greatness. 1: Moses’s parents, both from the priestly tribe of Levi, are named in 6.20. Woman, Moses’s mother, the third in a series of twelve women featured in chs 1–2; see 1.15n. 2: Saw that he was a fine baby, lit., “saw that he was good,” echoes the language of creation in Gen 1. 3: The Heb word for basket appears elsewhere in the Bible only as a designation for Noah’s ark (Gen 6.14), on which Noah and his family and the animals are saved. Here it is the means for rescuing the person who will save the Israelites. Reeds, see 13.18n. 4: Moses’s sister, named Miriam in 15.20 (perhaps in a different source), is the fourth woman of the story (see 1.15n.). She appears in more books of the Hebrew Bible (Numbers, Deuteronomy, 1 Chronicles, and Micah) than any other woman. 5: The royal daughter is the fifth woman of chs 1–2; see 1.15n. 6: Hebrew, see 1.15n. 7: Hiring a wet nurse was usually a practice of elites in the ancient Near East. 10: Moses, an Egyptian name meaning “is born” and often joined with a god’s name in Egyptian personal names (e.g., Thutmoses, Ahmoses, Rameses), is given a Heb etymology (“he who draws out”) in anticipation of Moses’s role in drawing his people through the sea (14.21–29; cf. Isa 63.11). 11–15: In the first two episodes of his adult life, Moses saves one Hebrew and tries to adjudicate between two others; both roles will recur and involve all his people. 11: His kinsfolk, he identifies with his people even though he was raised in the Egyptian court. 14–15a: Moses is rejected by his own people, and Pharaoh seeks his life. 14: Ruler, Heb “sar”; cf. 18.21,25. Judge, anticipates one of Moses’s many roles; see 18.13–27n. 15b–22: Moses flees to Midian and marries. 15b: Midian, in northwest Arabia. The Midianites, said to be descendants of Abraham and Keturah (Gen 25.2), were caravaneers whose routes stretched across Sinai toward Egypt. A well, where Moses meets his future wife, a pattern appearing in the stories of Rebekah (Gen 24) and Rachel (Gen 29). 16: Moses’s future father‐in‐law is a priest, who plays an important role in ch 18. Seven daughters, making a total of twelve female figures (see 1.15n.). 17: Saved by the daughter of a king, Moses now saves the daughters of a priest, one of whom will save him (4.24–26); the motif of saving recurs, anticipating the ultimate salvation or deliverance at the sea (13.17–15.21). 18: Reuel, elsewhere called Jethro (as 3.1) or Hobab (Judg 4.11), likely reflecting different ancient sources. 19: Probably because of his clothing, Moses is mistaken for an Egyptian. 21: Gave … in marriage, lit., “gave … as a wife,” a Heb idiom for marriage. 23–25: A postscript to the marriage episode provides a transition to the account of Moses becoming deliverer of his people in response to God’s call. God is mentioned in the midwives episode but only now is said to be aware of the Israelites’ plight. 23: They cried, the Egyptians eventually will cry louder (11.6), and the Israelites will cry again at the sea (14.10). Their slavery, that is, “their work.” 24: Referring to the ancestral covenant (Heb “berit,” as in 6.4–5; cf. 25.16n.) links Exodus with Genesis and anticipates the Sinai covenant (Ex 19–24).

3.1–4.17: Moses’s call and mission. The god of the ancestors appears to Moses in Midian, reveals the divine name, and commissions him to free his people. The term “prophet” is not used for Moses in Exodus, but this call narrative, similar to Isa 6, Jer 1.4–10, and Ezek 1–3, presents him as one. 3.1–10: Theophany: a divine revelation at the bush, where several sources have been combined. 1: Keeping the flock, a shepherd is a metaphor for both human (e.g., 1 Sam 17.15; 2 Sam 5.2; 7.8) and divine (e.g., Pss 23.1; 80.1; 100.3) kings. Horeb, used only three times in Exodus, only in the E source, but ordinarily in Deuteronomy), is called mountain of God, perhaps indicating its sanctity for Midianites. More often the holy mountain is called “Sinai” in Exodus; see 19.1. 2: An angel (lit., “messenger”) is a manifestation of God, who sometimes takes human form. God’s physical presence also appears shielded in clouds and fire (e.g., Ex 19.9; 24.15–18; 33.9; 40.34–38), both sometimes depicted as pillars (Ex 13.21; 14.19,24); seeing God directly can be dangerous (see 3.6n). Bush, Heb seneh, an unidentifiable shrub perhaps alluding alliteratively to Sinai (cf. Deut 33.16), another site of divine presence and revelation. God’s appearance in a bush may also reflect the symbolism of plants or trees as markers of fertility and divine presence (see 25.31–40n.). 5: Place (Heb “maqom”) often signifies holy space (Gen 28.11; Josh 5.15), as does holy ground; both indicate a site of theophany. 6: Divine presence represents such intense, mysterious, and powerful holiness that it was considered dangerous to humans, hence Moses’s reluctance to look at God’s (physical) manifestation (see 19.10–15n.; cf. 24.10; 33.20,23; 34.29–35; contrast ). 8: Come down implies that God resides in a heavenly abode (see 25.9n.). Flowing with milk and honey (also 33.3), a recurrent vision of a fertile land, is a reality only when people obey God (Deut 28). Honey is not bees’ honey but rather syrup made from cooking dates or grapes. Canaanites … Jebusites is one of several lists in the Pentateuch of the indigenous inhabitants of the land; the longest appears in Gen 15.19–21; cf. 13.5; 23.23,28; 33.2; 34.11. 10: Prophets are called and then sent to deliver God’s message (Isa 6.8; Jer 1.7). 3.11–4.17. Prophets are often reluctant, and Moses confronts God with four problematic issues. 3.11–12: Moses’s first problem is a sense of unworthiness for the mission; and the sign of divine help will be worship at the mountain. 13–15: The next problem is not knowing God’s name. Deities were identified by their proper names (not by generic “God”), and the Israelites will want to know which god has sent Moses to them. 14: I am who I am (Heb “ʾehyeh ʾasher ʾehyeh”) renders the first name that God provides; a shortened form, I am (“ʾehyeh”), renders the second. These translations are uncertain, however, for the Hebrew is ambiguous. 15: The third name is Lord, which has four Heb letters, “yhwh” (probably pronounced Yahweh) in Hebrew and is thus known as the Tetragrammaton. Like the first two versions of God’s name, its root means “to be” but its specific meaning is unclear. Because of the great sanctity of God’s name, early Jewish tradition avoided pronouncing it and used the Heb word ʾadonay (“my lord”) as a substitute. Most translations respect that tradition and use Lord for the deity’s proper name. According to Gen 4.26 (see also Gen 13.4), people knew God’s name early in human history; but this passage along with 6.3 preserves a different tradition, that Moses is the first to hear it. In ancient nonbiblical sources this divine name is known from a Late Bronze Age inscription that mentions the “Shasu of ya‐h‐wa [or yhw]”; the Shasu were desert‐dwellers and included Midianites. 16–22: A directive to Moses about speaking to his people and Pharaoh precedes other two problems. 16: Elders, usually used with “of Israel,” are representatives of the people in community governance (see also 4.29; 12.21; 17.56; 18.12; 19.7; 24.1,9,14). 18: God of the Hebrews, which connects the Lord to a specific people, is used when Moses addresses non‐Israelites (5.3; 7.16; 9.1; 9.13; 10.3); see 1.15n. Egyptians did give their state workers time off for religious events, so the request to make a three days’ journey is reasonable. 19: Mighty hand is an image of divine power in the ancient Near East (13.9; 15.6). 22: That an Israelite woman requests jewelry (see also 11.2–3; 12.35–36; 32.2–3) and clothing from her Egyptian neighbor suggests that they live peacefully together in workers’ villages; yet this transfer of goods is called plunder, perhaps in reference to Gen 15.14. 4.1–9: God responds to Moses’s third problem, that the people will not heed him, by providing three supernatural signs: changing a staff (see 4.20n.) to a snake (4.2–5), making Moses’s hand diseased and then restoring it (4.6–8), and turning water bloody (4.9). The last sign anticipates the first of the marvels (7.14–25). 10–17: God answers Moses’s fourth problem—that he cannot speak—by assuring him of divine help and assigning his brother to speak for him. 10: Slow of speech may denote a speech impediment (cf. 6.12,30) or perhaps a prophet’s reluctance to accept a commission from God (cf. Jer 1.6–7). 14: The first mention of Aaron, who would later found the priestly class. 15–16: Aaron becomes spokesperson to Moses, who will be God to him. This makes Moses equal to the divine Pharaoh in the ensuing negotiations; see 7.1. 17: Staff, see 4.20n.

4.18–31: Moses returns to Egypt. 20: Two sons, as in 18.3, although only one is mentioned in 2.22 and 4.25. 20: Moses’s shepherd staff (3.1; 4.2) is now called the staff of God, the instrument through which he and Aaron exert divine power; see further 17.9n. 21: The motif of Pharaoh’s hardened heart (stubbornness), appearing frequently in the narrative of Moses’s negotiations with the Egyptian ruler, serves to increase dramatic tension. The number ten, though never mentioned explicitly, plays a role: Pharaoh hardens his own heart (e.g., 8.15) ten times, although even then it is part of God’s plan (7.3; 11.9); and ten times God hardens it directly (e.g., 9.12). These differing reports of who caused the hardening of Pharaoh’s heart likely reflect different sources. 22: Based on the formulaic words of heralds bearing messages in the ancient Near East, the biblical expression thus says the Lord introduces words conveyed by a prophetic messenger of God. The prominent firstborn son motif is used here for Israel as the child of God (who will live), contrasting with chs 11 and, where it designates Egyptian offspring (who will die). See also Hos 11.1. 24–26: In this enigmatic episode, God attacks Moses for reasons that are unclear. 24: Moses again is saved by a woman, his wife Zipporah; see 2.17n. In performing her son’s circumcision, she may be carrying out a female role in Midianite and Israelite culture (1 Macc 1.60; 2 Macc 6.10; 4 Macc 4.25; cf. Gen 17.23–27 and Josh 5.2–7, where men are the circumcisers). 25: Feet, a euphemism for genitals (see Isa 7.20). Bridegroom of blood may connote an ancient apotropaic (evil‐averting) function of circumcision as a rite of passage, for the Heb word for bridegroom (“ḥatan”) in other Semitic languages can mean “protect” as well as “circumcise.” Marriage and circumcision are also associated in Gen 34.14–24. 27–31: Aaron joins Moses and convinces the people with words and signs that God sees their plight. 27: Mountain of God, see 3.1.

5.1–6.1: Moses and Aaron have their first encounter with Pharaoh. 5.1–3: They request only a three‐day leave, not permanent freedom, but Pharaoh refuses as anticipated in 3.19. 1: God of Israel, cf. 3.18n. The imperative Let my people go appears for the first time and adumbrates its sevenfold use in the account of nine divine marvels; see 7.16n. 2: Know the Lord, which entails acknowledging the Lord’s authority, is a recurrent theme in Exodus; God’s mighty deeds will convince the Egyptians of God’s reality and power (14.4,18) and cause the Israelites to affirm their belief (16.12; 29.46). Knowing God is a response to witnessing God’s powerful deeds (1 Kings 20.13). 3: God of the Hebrews, see 3.18n. Fall … sword indicates that failure to carry out religious obligations would have dire consequences. 4–19: Pharaoh again employs strategies, now also punitive, to deal with the burgeoning Israelite population. 6: Supervisors, Israelite officers (perhaps a subgroup of the elders; see 3.16n.) working under the Egyptian taskmasters in charge of corvée labor (see 1.11n.). 7: Straw, an essential component in brick‐making, binds the particles of Nile mud. 9: Deceptive words refers to Moses’s promise of liberation. 10: Introducing Pharaoh’s words with Thus says Pharaoh sets him in opposition to the Lord, whose words are similarly announced (see 4.22n). 5.20–6.1: The Israelite supervisors are disheartened, and Moses complains to God who promises to take action.

6.2–7.7: God reaffirms the mission of Moses and Aaron in the light of the worsened circumstances of the people. This section from the Priestly source parallels 3.1–4.17. 6.2: God’s self‐identification (also vv. 5 and 6) emphasizes the connection of God’s identity to the promise. 3: The meaning of Heb shadday (see text note a; Gen 17.1n.; 35.11), translated Almighty, is unclear; it may be an epithet meaning “the one of the mountains.” 4: The ancestral covenant promised the land (Gen 15.7–21; 17.1–8; see 2.24n.). 5: Similar to 2.23–25. 6–8: Seven dynamic verbs (will free, deliver, redeem, take, will be, will bring, will give), with God as the first‐person subject, connote the totality of God’s commitment. Two other verbs in dependent clauses (swore, freed) bring the total up to nine divine actions, anticipating the nine signs and wonders of the next section. 7: I will take you as my people, and I will be your God is formulaic language linking the two partners of a covenant (Jer 31.33). Know, see 5.2n. 9: Cruel slavery, or “hard work,” referring to their predicament rather than their status. 12: Poor speaker (also v. 30) is another expression of a prophet’s reluctance; see 4.10n. 14–25: A genealogy, similar to other genealogies in the Pentateuch (Gen 46.8–27; Num 3.1–37; 26). 16–25: Authority is conferred on Moses, Aaron, and Aaron’s sons and grandsons by situating their lineage in the priestly tribe of Levi. The unusual naming of several women (vv. 20,23,25) emphasizes the importance of the Levites. 20: Moses’s mother Jochebed, whose name means “Yo [Yahweh] is glory,” is the first person in the Bible to have a name formed with the name of Israel’s God. Aaron and Moses, but not Miriam. 23: Nadab and Abihu, priestly leaders with Aaron in the Sinai narrative (24.1); cf. Lev 10.1–7. 25: Eleazar … Phinehas, the successors of Aaron (see Num 20.25–28; 25.1–13) conclude the genealogy, revealing its priestly interest; see 28.1. 26–30: The narrative resumes with a brief recapitulation of 6.2–12. 26: Company by company, military language depicts the fleeing Israelites (also 7.4; 12.17; 12.37n.; 13.18). 7.1–7: Another account of the affirmation of Moses’s mission. 1: See 4.15–16n. 3: Harden, see 4.21n. Signs and wonders anticipates the nine marvels of the next section (see 7.7–10.29.); these mighty acts of God, together with the climactic slaying of Egyptian firstborn, are the source of knowing God. 5: Know, see 5.2n. 7: Eighty … eighty‐three makes Moses younger than Aaron, different from the firstborn tradition of 2.2.

7.8–10.29: The nine marvels. The designation “ten plagues” does not appear in the Bible, and fewer than ten catastrophes appear in the two psalms that mention them (Pss 78.44–51 and 105.28–36). The noun “plague” appears only for the slaying of the firstborn (11.1), except for once at 9.14 (see n.; cf. 8.2n). The Bible has several designations for the nine marvels: “signs and wonders” (7.3; Pss 78.43; 105.27), “signs” (10.1,2), and “wonders” (11.9,10). These terms do not fit the meaning of the Heb term for “plague” (root “ngp”), an epidemic of deadly disease as a punitive measure (cf. 32.35; Num 25.8,9,18,19). The marvels narrative likely draws from several sources to form a three‐triad pattern, totaling nine marvels: Pharaoh receives a warning, in the morning, for the first, fourth, and seventh marvels; Pharaoh receives a warning, time unspecified, for the second, fifth, and eighth ones; the third, sixth, and ninth happen unannounced. Each triad has the same sequence, an arrangement suggesting that nine is the appropriate number; the slaying of the firstborn constitutes a separate climactic event. The marvels unfold in a dramatic series of encounters between God’s emissaries, Moses and Aaron, and the deified Pharaoh and his officials and magicians; they result in Pharaoh’s acknowledging (“knowing”) God. Although each of the nine marvels depicts a horrific natural phenomenon, the intensity and rapid‐fire timing provide a vivid expression of God’s extraordinary power, as does the tenth event, the slaying of the firstborn. These disastrous events originate in literary/mythic traditions deployed to gripping dramatic effect.

7.8–13: Preface to the marvels. The introduction to the marvels, like 4.1–5, features a staff turning into a snake in competition with Egyptian magicians. 9: Aaron, not Moses, has the leading role in this episode and in the first three marvels, which incorporate material from the Priestly source, which emphasizes Aaron. 11: Magicians appear for the first time; the Heb term is derived from an Egyptian word denoting a priestly official. Secret arts refers to spells or incantations that the Egyptians use, whereas Aaron simply casts his staff down. 13: Hardened, appearing in the preface, anticipates Pharaoh’s response to every marvel and to the climactic plague; see 4.21n. As … said, noting the veracity of God’s predictions here and for most of the marvels.

7.14–8.19: First three marvels. Aaron’s staff is the instrument of divine power. 7.14–25: First marvel, bloody waters. This marvel, like some others, combines two traditions: in one, Moses’s action pollutes the Nile only; in the other, Aaron turns all Egyptian water into blood. 15: Water and river bank evoke the image of the infant Moses in the river (2.3) and anticipate the role of water in the final water event, when the Red (Reed) Sea splits and Egyptian troops drown (14.21–29). 16–17: The Israelites have heard what God will do (6.6–8), as has Moses (7.1–5); now Pharaoh is told. 16: God of the Hebrews, see 3.18n. Let my people go appears six more times in the marvels sequence (8.2021; 9.1,13; 10.3,4; cf. 5.1); this sevenfold usage emphasizes the theme of freeing the Israelites. 17: The entire Nile turns bloody, making this far more extensive than the bloody‐water sign to the Israelites (4.9). Blood in the Nile may reflect the reddish color of extreme flooding, but bloody water also symbolizes dire misfortune in ancient Near Eastern literature. 18: Egyptians (but apparently not Israelites) will be affected (as in vv. 21,24, and in the next marvel, 8.3–4,9–11). 19: The abundance of water terms, rivers … water, stresses the role of water; see 7.15n. 22: Magicians can duplicate this calamity; but again (as in 7.11) they must use spells, and humorously they make the calamity even worse! 22: Hardened, see 4.21n. 8.1–15: Second marvel, frogs. 2: Plague, better “smite.” 3: The three elements of Egypt’s hierarchical society—Pharaoh, his officials, and the people, that is, all Egyptians—are affected. They are mentioned nine times in the marvels sequence and once more in the account of the slaying of the firstborn (12.30). 8: Despite the magicians’ replication of this event (v. 7), Pharaoh momentarily relents and seems to recognize Israel’s god by requesting that Moses and Aaron pray (lit., “plead”) on behalf of the Egyptians (cf. 8.28–30; 9.28; 10.17–18). 10: Tomorrow, a one‐day delay; see 8.23n. Pharaoh is depicted as a buffoon for not opting to cease the plague immediately. 15: Hardened, see 4.21n. 8.16–19: Third marvel, gnats. Unlike the two previous wonders, which combine Priestly and non‐Priestly material, this wonder is entirely Priestly, and thus less internally repetitive and more consistent. 16: Dust represents what is countless (Gen 13.16). 18–19: Failing this time to replicate the calamity, the magicians—but not Pharaoh—recognize the infestation as an act of Israel’s god. 19: Hardened, see 4.21n.

8.20–9.12: Second group of three marvels. Instrumentality shifts: God is the direct agent (8.24; 9.6), then Moses and Aaron together are agents (9.8). 8.20–32: Fourth marvel, flies. 20: Although Aaron is sometimes mentioned, Moses dominates the accounts of the remaining six marvels. 21: The meaning of the Heb word for flies is uncertain, but it likely denotes biting insects (cf. Pss 78.45; 105.31). 22: Goshen, unknown in Egyptian sources, appears here and in 9.26 as the location of the Israelite work camps, probably in the eastern Nile Delta; see 1.11n. and Gen 45.10. 23: Distinction, now God explicitly excludes the Israelites from the calamities; see 7.18n. Tomorrow introduces a time element; a delay in the onset of the marvel (as also in 9.5,18; 10.4) is a twist on the delay of Moses’s wonder‐ending prayer 8.10n.). 25: Pharaoh seems to relent (as in 8.8) but reneges in v. 32. 26: Offensive, practices of one people are odious to another; cf. Gen 46.34. 28–29: Pray, as in 8.9. 32: Hardened, see 4.21n. 9.1–7: Fifth marvel, pestilence. 1: God of the Hebrews, see 3.18n. 3: Hand, see 3.19n. Pestilence in Deuteronomic and prophetic texts kills both humans and animals, but here only animals. 4: Distinction, see 8.23n. 5: Tomorrow, see 8.23n. 7: Hardened, see 4.21n. 9.8–12: Sixth marvel, boils. 11: Magicians cannot compete and are themselves afflicted (cf. 7.11,22; 8.718–19). 12: Now God hardens Pharaoh’s heart; see 4.21n.

9.13–10.29: Third group of three marvels. Moses’s outstretched hand is now the instrument, and the severity of the calamities escalates. 9.13–35: Seventh marvel, hail. 13: God of the Hebrews, see 3.18n. 14: Only here is plagues used for one of the nine marvels, perhaps because of the extensive loss of human and animal life, as for the climactic slaying of the firstborn; see 7.8–10.29. and 11.1n. 18: Tomorrow, see 8.23n. So severe is the hail that it figures in the next calamity (10.5,15). 19: The severity prompts God, uniquely, to suggest a protective measure. 22: Hail, frequently Yahweh’s weapon (e.g., Josh 10.11, Isa 30.20; Ezek 13.13). 24: Fire flashing, lightning, along with thunder accompanies the hail (vv. 23–24) to deadly effect; compare the thunder and lightning of the Sinai theophany (see 19.16–19n.). 26: See 8.22n. and 8.23n. 27: Sinned, an apparently unqualified admission; but Pharaoh continues to sin by reneging again (v. 34; 8.15,32). 28: Pray, see 8.8n. 35: Hardened, apparently by God; see 4.21n. 10.1–20: Eighth marvel, locusts. 1: God hardened the hearts of both Pharaoh and his officers; see 4.21n. 2: Tell … grandchildren heralds the importance of remembering; see 11.1–13.16. 3: God of the Hebrews, see 3.18n. 4: Tomorrow, see 8.23n. Locusts are extremely damaging; a common literary theme in the ancient Near East, they reflect disaster (Joel 1.2–2.27) and divine judgment (Amos 4.9). 5: No one … see, a result replicated by the ninth marvel (10.23). 13: An east wind, which will also part the Red (Reed) Sea (14.21), brings the locusts; and a “west wind” will later remove them by casting them into that sea (v. 19). 16: Sinned, see 9.27n. 17–18: Pray, see 8.8n. 19: Red Sea, see 13.18n. 20: Hardened by God; see 4.21n. 10:21–29: Ninth marvel, darkness, another common literary theme. 21: Darkness anticipates the midnight setting of the death of firstborns (12.29) and the nighttime sea crossing (14.20). 22: Three days mirrors the requested three‐day journey for sacrifice (3.18; 5.3; 8.27) and anticipates the three‐day duration of the first post‐Sinai journey (15.22). 27: Hardened by God; see 4.21n.

11.1–13.16: Plague, commemorative rituals, and departure. After the firstborn plague is announced, detailed commands for commemorative rituals are interspersed with accounts of Egyptian deaths and the Israelite Exodus. Although addressed to Israelites as they leave Egypt, the directives for various rituals also mandate future acts commemorating the radical change from servitude to freedom through divine intervention. The miraculous departure from Egypt becomes part of the collective memory of future generations, kept alive through religious practices that enable later generations to recall and relive the formative Exodus experiences. The rituals will contribute to Israelite communal identity. Present and future merge in this composite and somewhat redundant account drawing on Priestly and other sources.

11.1–10: Announcement of the plague. 1: Plague, better “affliction”; see 7.8–10.29. and 9.14n. Drive echoes the prediction of 6.1. 2: In 3.22 women acquire jewelry and clothing; here men and women will obtain jewelry but not clothing (see also 12.35–36; 35.22,29. 5: Firstborn, see 4.22n. Pharaoh … female slave, opposite ends of the socioeconomic spectrum form a merism indicating that all Egyptians will be affected . 6: The Egyptians’ unique loud cry surpasses the Israelites’ cry (see 2.2n.). Uniqueness also features in the seventh and eighth marvels (9.18,25; 10.14). 7: Distinction between Egypt and Israel, again indicating the selective nature of what will happen (see 8.23n. and 9.4). 10: Hardened by God, see 4.21n.

12.1–28: Preparations for departure: passover and unleavened bread festivals. Here and in vv. 43–49 and 13.3–10, God ordains what will become a major Israelite festival (Deut 16.1–8; Num 9.1–14; 2 Kings 23.21–23; Ezek 45.21–24). Pastoral and agricultural components of the originally Canaanite ritual calendar—springtime birth of sheep and goats, growth of green herbs, and ripening of grains—are now historicized. These festivals, which were originally separate, are linked to each other and to the Exodus, helping to re‐create for later generations the exultant experience of liberation. 1–13: Passover. 2: This month (March‐April), called Abib in 13.4 and 23.15, is later called Nisan (Neh 2.1; Esth 3.7). This spring New Year (first month of the year) reflects a Priestly reckoning (Lev 23.5; Num 9.1–5) in contrast to an older tradition of an autumn New Year (23.16; 34.22). 3: Whole congregation of Israel, repeated in v. 47, refers to the adult males of the community. 4: Household likely indicates an extended (not a nuclear) family—enough people to consume a roasted animal in one sitting. 5: Without blemish, offerings to God must be perfect (Lev 22.19–25; Deut 15.21; 17.1). 7: Blood can have an apotropaic quality; see 4.25n. and 12.11n. 8: The animal slaughtered for the festal meal is to be roasted over fire, a preparation making it seem like an offering (cf. Lev 1.7–9), but without using a sacrificial term. Unleavened bread appears here without comment, as if it were already known and incorporated into the passover festival; see 12.15n. Bitter herbs, a green plant serving as a condiment. 11: The people must be ready to travel while they consume the young sheep or goat (v. 5). Passover (“pesaḥ”), often understood as “passing over,” is more likely from a word meaning “protect” (“spare,” Isa 31.5), which is in accord with the apotropaic role of the blood smeared on doorways (12.5n.). Here (and in vv. 27,43) “passover” refers to the slaughter and eating of the animal; eventually, it designates a longer commemorative festival (Deut 16.1–8; Ezek 45.21) that includes the following seven‐day festival of unleavened bread (12.14–20; 13.2–10). 12: I will strike has God slaying the firstborn (but see 12.23n.) of both humans and animals. Israel’s god thus wins the contest with the gods of Egypt (cf. 15.11). 13: Pass over, see 12.11n. 14–20: Unleavened bread. 14: This day is the fifteenth day, after the passover of the fourteenth of Nisan; see 12.2n. and 12.6. Thus, the nighttime passover is followed by a seven‐day festival of unleavened bread (see Lev 23.5–8). Remembrance proclaims the festival’s commemorative aspect (see 13.9n), and throughout … perpetual applies it to all future Israelites (see 10.2n. and 11.1–13.16.). 15: Unleavened bread (Heb “matsah,” spelled “matzah” or “matzo” in English; also vv. 34,39; 23.15; 34.18), part of an ancient spring barley harvest festival, is connected to the hasty departure from Egypt; see 12.11n. and 11.1–13.16. Cut off, the penalty for many serious violations of Priestly law (e.g., 30.33,38; 31.14), signifies dying without heirs, thus ending one’s lineage; it would be implemented by God, not humans. 16: No work signifies a holy day, as on the sabbath (20.8–11). 17: Companies, a military term; see 6.26n. 19: Although not obliged to celebrate the passover (v. 48), an alien (non‐Israelite) must refrain from eating leavened bread. 21–28: Passover again. 22: Hyssop, an aromatic plant used in dipping and sprinkling rituals (e.g., Lev 14.6–7; Num 19.18). 23: Pass over, that is, “protect”; see 12.11n. Representing a variant tradition, a divine agent, the destroyer, rather than God, carries out the mission. 24–27: Commands for future observance emphasize the pedagogic function of the passover (also 10.2; 13.8–914–16; cf. Deut 6.6–7); see 11.1–13.16.

12.29–52: Plague, departure, and passover. As soon as the Egyptian firstborns die, the Israelites leave Egypt and are reminded to celebrate the passover. 29–36: Plague. What God announced in 11.1–8 is carried out. 29: Firstborn, see 4.22n. 30: Cry, see 11.6n. 33: Urged, perhaps fulfilling the notion of driving out the Israelites (6.1; 11.1). 35: Jewelry … clothing, rather than “plunder” (in 36; see 3.22n.). 12.37–42: Departing Egypt and beginning the wilderness journey (which continues in the book of Numbers). 37: Each stage of the journey is marked by formulaic language: traveling from Place A to Place B. Rameses (see 1.11n.) and Succoth are probably in the eastern Nile Delta; however, like virtually every stop on the journey, they cannot be clearly identified and do not reflect accurate or actual memories. Six hundred thousand men (as Num 11.21; cf. 38.26) is hyperbole indicating the proliferation of Israelites (1.7–9,20; 5.5) and the idea that all Israel experienced the Exodus; cf. 14.7n. Men on foot, or infantry, continues the military imagery; see 6.26n. Children are mentioned, but not the elderly or women; the latter may be subsumed into their husbands, the “men” (see 20.8–11n). 38: Mixed crowd suggests that non‐Israelites also escape. 39: See 12.15n. 40–41: Four hundred and thirty years is close to the period of “four hundred years” foreordained in Gen 15.13 (but cf. Gen 15.16); suggested reasons for the additional thirty years are speculative. 41: Companies, see 12.17n. 42: Vigil, from a root meaning “to guard” and also “to observe, perform (an obligation)” appears twice, forming a wordplay connoting present divine protection and future Israelite commemoration. 43–51: Further passover instructions, explicitly for future observances. 43: Ordinance for the passover (also in Num 9.12 and probably Ex 13.10) is likely the title of a Priestly document containing rules for passover observance. Foreigner, non‐Israelite living temporarily in the land. 44: A slave who is purchased is circumcised and considered part of the household (Gen 17.12–13). 45: Bound or hired servant denotes a temporary member of a household. 46: In one house, see 12.4n. 47: Whole congregation, see 12.3n. 48: Unlike the “foreigner” of v. 43, an alien is usually a permanent, non‐Israelite resident and must be circumcised in order to celebrate passover. Circumcision in this instance is not a conversion rite. 49: Law (Heb “torah”) is better translated “instruction” or “teaching” (as 13.9; 18.20). Native, or citizen, that is Israelite. 51: This verse resumes the narrative of vv. 37–41. Company, see 12.17n.

13.1–16: More commemorative rituals: consecration of the firstborn, and unleavened bread festival. 2: Consecration of the firstborn reflects the special status of the first offspring of a woman or animal (see 4.22n.; 13.12n. 22.29–30; 34.19–20; Num 8.16–18). Its commemorative function is given in vv. 14–16. 3: The charge to remember prescribes commemoration; see 10.2n. and 11.1–13.16.. 4: Abib, meaning “new grain,” is an older name for this springtime month; see 12.2n. 5: See 3.8n. 8: See 11.1–13.16. and 12.24–27n. 9: Sign … forehead (also v. 16; Deut 6.6–8) denotes metaphoric modes of commemoration (as Prov 6.20–21; 7.1–3), but is interpreted literally in postexilic times, giving rise to the Jewish custom of phylacteries. Reminder (Heb “zikkaron”; sometimes translated “remembrance”) frequently invokes the commemorative function of ritual acts or objects (17.14; 28.12,29; 30.16; see also 11.1–13.16. The phrase teaching (Heb “torah”) of the Lord appears for the first time in the Bible; see 12.49n. Hand, see 3.19n. 11: Instructions for consecrating the firstborn resume. 12: Set apart to the Lord, for the firstborn belong to God; see 4.22n. Males, specifying for the first time the gender of the firstborn to be consecrated. 13: Because the donkey is a ritually impure animal (see Lev 11; Deut 14.3–21), it is redeemed by a pure one, a sheep; see also 34.20. The procedure for redeeming the human firstborn male is not specified. 14–15: Linking the consecration of the firstborn to the firstborn slain in the plague gives the custom a pedagogical function; see 10.2n. and 11.1–13.16n. 16: See v. 9n.

13.17–15.21: Journey to and through the sea, described in prose and poetry.

13.17–14.31: The narrative account, with its repetitions, contradictions, non sequiturs, and inconsistencies, is a composite. 13.17: Way of the land of the Philistines, the shortest land route from Egypt to Canaan, runs parallel to the Mediterranean coast toward southwest Canaan where the Philistines, an Aegean people, settled in the late thirteenth and early twelfth centuries bce. 18: Roundabout way of the wilderness, that is, not a specific route. This vague description fits the ahistorical character of the places along the way; see 12.37n. Red Sea (Heb “yam sup”), properly Reed Sea, likely designates the reedy marshes of northeastern Egypt. The following miraculous sea‐splitting account (14.21–29) does not fit the marshland referent and reflects a different, perhaps imaginary or mythological, sea tradition. Battle, in keeping with the military language for the journeying Israelites; see 6.26n. 19: Gen 50.24–26. 20: Next stage of the journey; see 12.37n. 21: Pillar of cloud and pillar of fire, probably one column manifesting the divine presence, shielded by a cloud by day and fire at night; see 3.2n. 14.1: Moses acts alone, without Aaron, in the sea‐crossing episode. 2: Next stage of the journey; see 12.37n. Sea, see 13.18n. 4: Harden, by God; see 4.21n. Glory, better “power” and thus “authority” (also v. 17). Know, see 5.2n. 7: Six hundred, perhaps a stock military unit (cf. Judg 18.11), provides a 1:1000 ratio with the Israelite infantry (12.37n.). 8: Hardened by God; see 4.21n. 9: Pursued … overtook is formulaic language (15.9; Deut 19.6; etc.). 10: Cried, see 2.23n. 11–12: For the first but not the last time the Israelites complain in a crisis situation, challenging Moses’s authority (15.24; 16.2–3; 17.3; and frequently in Numbers). 14: The Lord will fight introduces the mythic concept of the Divine Warrior, based on the Canaanite deity Baal who battles watery chaos often depicted as a sea monster. The image is used in the Bible to represent divine might wielded to save Israel (v. 25; 15.3; Deut 20.4; 1 Sam 17.47; Zech 9.13–14.) 16: Moses’s staff (see 4.17n.) is not mentioned in vv. 21,26,27. 17: Harden appears for the last time; see 4.21n. Glory, see v. 4n. 18: Know, see. 19–20: Angel and pillar, both manifestations of God’s presence (see 3.2n. and 13.21n.), likely from different sources. 21: Wind, dry land, and divided waters, which evoke creation (Gen 1.2,6,9; cf. Gen 8.2), are from a Priestly hand. 22: This verse is repeated almost verbatim in v. 29, framing vv. 23–28 and indicating that as the Israelites were fleeing, the Egyptians were pursuing them. 24: Pillar, see 3.2n. 29: This verse repeats v. 22 (see v. 22n.). Dry ground … sea reverses the sea … dry ground of v. 22, forming a chiasm and further framing the intervening narrative. 31: The Heb for believed means to “trust” in God rather than to affirm God’s existence.

15.1–21: The Song of the Sea is a lyric victory hymn generally considered an originally independent composition, one of the oldest literary units in the Bible, perhaps from the twelfth century bce. Influenced by mythic accounts of the Divine Warrior’s battle with watery chaos (see 14.14n.), it is rich in metaphors and terms that preclude single explanations and at times even defy comprehension; in many details it diverges from the prose account in ch 14. 1: Although attributed here to Moses, this poem was originally attributed to Miriam, given the association of women with the victory song genre (see v. 20n.); I need not be Moses. 2: The Lord … salvation, a hymnic bicolon appearing (perhaps as a quotation) in Isa 12.2 and Ps 118.14. My father’s God, Israel’s ancestral deity (3.6,13,15; 4.5; 6.2–4). 3: Warrior, see 14.14n. Name, see 3.13–15n. 4: Red Sea, see 13.18n. 5: Floods, in Heb the plural of the term that denotes watery chaos (“deep”) in Gen 1.2. 6: The right hand of God (also v. 12), not Moses’s hand (as 14.16,21,26), directly vanquishes the enemy; see 3.19n. 7: Consumed … stubble evokes imagery of fire, which is sometimes paired with water as elements of devastation (Isa 43.2,16–17). 8: Blast of your nostrils, poetic language for a strong wind (v. 10), usually destructive (see Job 4.9). 9: Pursue … overtake, see 14.9n. 11: Among the gods may be language of Israelite monolatry, in which the existence of other gods is acknowledged (18.11; 20.3; 23.32–33). Another possibility is that gods denotes lesser divine manifestations or angels in God’s heavenly court (Pss 82.1; 89.5–8). Either way, the rhetorical questions of this verse highlight the incomparability of Israel’s god. 12: Right hand, see 15.6n. Earth, seemingly incompatible with water imagery, refers to the underworld (Sheol, the abode of the dead), which swallows the living (Num 16.32; Isa 29.4; Prov 1.12). 13: Love, Heb h. esed, which also connotes “kindness” and especially “faithfulness.” Holy abode may refer to God’s heavenly dwelling (as do the terms of v. 17b) or mythical home in the north (Ps 48.1–2); but it perhaps also alludes to the Promised Land as God’s mountainous possession (v. 17a; Ps 78.54–55) and to the Israelites as God’s sanctuary (Ps 114.1–2). If this is not a premonarchic poem, it may also refer to the Jerusalem Temple (v. 17b). 14: Philistia, see 13.17n. 15: The Transjordanian kingdoms of Edom and Moab, along with many inhabitants of Canaan, are enemies of the Israelites. 16: Arm, instead of “hand” (see 15.6n.), as in 6.6. Passed by, better “crossed,” has many possible meanings, all valid: crossing the sea, the wilderness, the Jordan, or mythically crossing to God’s mountain. 17: This verse contains overlapping and multileveled imagery similar to that of ancient Canaanite poetry (see 15.13n.). Mountain of your possession can refer to Israel’s homeland in Canaan, conceptualized as God’s inheritance (see v. 13n.; 34.9; cf. Isa 2.3). Abode, not the same Heb word as for “abode” in v. 13, designates God’s heavenly throne. Sanctuary, lit., “holy place,” is never used in 1 Kings for the Jerusalem Temple; and elsewhere it designates places or objects possessing sanctity, including celestial dwellings of deities (see 25.9n.). Your hands have established indicates that God made the sanctuary, implying that it is the heavenly one, not the copy constructed in Jerusalem by humans; or it could give God credit for building the earthly shrine (cf. Ps 78.69). 18: Reign introduces for the first time the prominent biblical metaphor of God as king. 19–21: A brief narrative with a final poetic section. 19: A summary of 14.23–29. 20: The title prophet is used for Miriam (whose name appears here for the first time), perhaps because her utterances are in the form of an inspired musical performance (cf. Deborah, Judg 4.4; 5, but not for Moses in Exodus. Tambourine is an anachronistic translation of Heb top, a small handheld frame drum (without jingles) played mainly by women in the ancient Near East. All the women … dancing indicate a woman’s performance genre—usually involving drums, dance, and song—for victory celebrations (1 Sam 18.6–7; Jer 31.4,13). 21: This poem, similar to 15.1, may be an abbreviation or title of 15.1–18, originally a composition of Miriam later attributed to Moses (see 15.1n.).

15.22–24.18. Sinai and covenant. Facing recurrent difficulties, the Israelites cross the wilderness to Sinai (15.22–18.27) where they experience a theophany (ch 19) and enter into the covenant (chs 20–24).

15.22–18.27: Crises and reorganization in the wilderness. The journey resumes; four crises—two water shortages, lack of food, and military threat—foreshadowing the difficulties of life in Canaan, and a meeting with Jethro.

15.22–27: First crisis, lack of water. 22–23: Next stage of the journey; see 12.37n. 22: Red Sea, see 13.18n. 24: Complained, see 14.11–12n. 25a: Moses carries out a magical act, 25b: Statute … ordinance, necessary because a community cannot exist without regulations; see 21.1–22.17. The wilderness crises test Israelites (also 16.4) and God (17.27); see Deut 8.1–3,16. 26: Diseases, although not used in the marvels episodes (7.8–10.29), may allude to them or to general Egyptian maladies or to both; cf. Deut 28.27. Heals you, better “your healer,” an epithet that may derive from Canaanite myth. 27: Next stage of the journey; see 12.37n.

16.1–36: Second crisis, lack of food (cf. Num 11). 1: Next stage of the journey, see 12.37n. Fifteenth day … second month is a month after departing Egypt (12.17–18). The name Sinai appears for the first time (see 3.1n., 3.2n., and 19.1n.). 2: Complained, see 14.11–12n. 3: Hand of the Lord, see 9.3n. Fleshpots (referring to meat) and bread, their food in Egypt, will be matched by quails (v. 13) and bread (v. 4; or manna, vv. 15,31) in the wilderness. 4: This test (see 15.25n.) may be about obeying God’s instructions (Heb “torah”; see 12.49n.) and about believing God will provide for them. 6: To know God here (and v. 12) is to recognize that God can miraculously provide sustenance; cf. 5.2n. 7: The phrase glory of the Lord, a technical Priestly phrase signifying God’s physical presence (within a cloud, v. 10), appears for the first time in the Bible (also 24.16,17; 40.34,35; cf. 33.18n.); see 3.2n. 9: Aaron again speaks for Moses; see 4.15–16n. 12: Know, see 16.6n. 13: Dew, like rain, signifies divine favor (e.g., Gen 27.28), both essential for agriculture in ancient Israel. 16: Omer, see 16.36n. 19: This will indicate trust in God. 23–30: Instructions for the sabbath as a day of rest on the seventh day (cf. Gen 2.2–3) precede the Decalogue’s sabbath commandment (see 20.8–11n.); sabbath observance is part of Israel’s learning to obey God (see 16.4n.; see also 20.8–11; 23.12; 31.12–17; 34.21; 35.1–3). Thus the sabbath as part of the world order is introduced through the manna episode. 31: House of Israel, see 40.34n. “What is it?” (Heb “man huʾ”) in v. 15 provides an etymology for manna, which cannot be identified and may be a mythic substance (cf. Num 11.7–9; Ps 78.25; Wis 16.20). 32: Kept throughout your generations alludes to an otherwise unknown commemorative ritual; see 11.1–13.16. 33–34: Covenant, elliptical for the not‐yet‐announced “ark of the covenant” (25.10–22), is parallel to Lord (v. 33), indicating that the ark signifies God’s presence (see 25.17–22n.). Cf. Heb 9.4. 35: Forty years, the first mention of the length of the wilderness sojourn. 36: Ephah (ca. 21 qts [23 L]) and omer (2 qts [2.3 liters]) are dry measures, usually for grain.

17.1–7: Third crisis, lack of water (cf. Num 20.2–13). 1: Further stages of the journey; see 12.27n. 2–3: The people complain again (see 14.11–12n.). The synonym quarrel (Heb “rib”) provides an etymology for Meribah (v. 7). Similarly, test (Heb “nissah”) provides an etymology for Massah (v. 7). 6: Water coming from a rock at the mountain Horeb (see 3.1n.) invokes mythic imagery of the cosmic mountain, the divine home and source of all water. 7: Among us, or “with you/us,” an expression denoting God’s potent presence, which provides food or water and protection for Israelites.

17.8–16. Fourth crisis, military threat. 8: Amalek refers to a seminomadic group and habitual enemy of Israel (v. 16; Deut 25.17–19; Judg 6.1–3; 1 Sam 15; etc.). Amalekites are not attested in nonbiblical sources. 9: Moses’s successor Joshua, whose name appears seven times in Exodus, is first mentioned here. Moses’s staff can secure military victory (as in the sea crossing, 14.16) and produce water (17.5–6) or make it undrinkable (7.15–19); see 4.20n. 10: Hur, an associate of Moses and Aaron (also 24.14), is likely a Levite here, but is a Judahite in 31.2. 14: The instruction to write is the first biblical mention of Israelite literacy. Reminder and remembrance, indications of the commemorative aspects of the Exodus story; see 13.9n.; cf. 11.1–13.16. Book, better “document.” Recite gives oral form to written recollections. 15–16: Constructing an altar may be a third commemorative act.

18.1–27: Meeting with Jethro, who solves an organizational crisis. 1: Jethro, see 2.18n. Father‐in‐law, Heb h. oten, connotes marriage as a bond between a man and his wife’s father and thus between two families, not just a bond between the conjugal pair; its frequent and redundant use in ch 18 thus emphasizes the Israelites’ connection with the Midianites. 2: Sent away to her father for safety; he thus took her back, accepted her. 3–4: Gershom’s symbolic name appears in 2.22 but Eliezer’s only here. 5: Mountain of God, i.e., Sinai/Horeb (see 3.1n.). Another tradition (19.2) implies that the Israelites reach the mountain after the Jethro episode. 10–12: As a priest (v. 1, see 2.16n.) who blesses the Lord, acknowledges the Lord (see 5.2n.) as greater than other deities (see 15.11n.), and sacrifices to the Lord, Jethro may reflect Midianite familiarity with this deity; see 3.15n. 12: Eat bread denotes a communal sacrificial meal binding the Israelites, Jethro, and God (see 24.5n). 13–27 (cf. Deut 1.9–18): Rendering justice will be the responsibility of a hierarchy of administrative officials (vv. 13,22; NRSV “judges”). In the retelling of this episode in Deut 1.9–18, the initiative is Moses’s alone. 20: Statutes, see 15.25b n. Instructions (Heb “torot,” pl. of “torah”), see 12.49n. 26: Case, Heb dabar, also, “thing, word, matter,” uses a root (“dbr”) that appears ten times in ch 18, anticipating the ten “words” of the Decalogue; see 20.1–17n.

19.1–25: Revelation at the mountain. God’s second appearance at Sinai/Horeb (cf. ch 3) is a composite of traditions, at times contradictory or redundant, together conveying the mystery of this momentous theophany. Sinai/Horeb is depicted as an earthly manifestation of the cosmic mountain (see 17.6n.), axis of the mythic connection between divine and human realms. 1: The location of Sinai (or Horeb; see 3.1n.) is uncertain. Some passages (Deut 33.2; Judg 5.4; Hab 3.3,7) locate it in southern Jordan; the traditional site in the southern Sinai Peninsula (see map on p. 101) is unlikely. 3: House of Jacob is parallel with “sons of Israel” (Israelites), the two names of the ancestor of the twelve tribes (Gen 32.28). 4: The reminder of God’s past actions for the Israelites, as preface to the covenant, is typical of Near Eastern treaties between a stronger and a weaker king, in which the overlord states past benefactions; also 20.2. Eagle’s wings, image of parental protection and nurturance (Deut 32.11–13). 5: Obey … keep signifies the people’s responsibility to the god who saved them, thus anticipating the Sinai covenant, first mentioned here (cf. 2.24; 6.4–5). The concept of a pact or covenant between God and Israel is a theologized form of Near Eastern treaty agreements in which a ruler is the patron of a vassal, who has obligations in return. Unlike most vassals, Israel will have special status as its overlord’s treasured possession (Deut 7.6; 14.2; 26.18). 6: Priestly kingdom … holy nation poetically presents all Israelites as priests: they will have privileges of intimacy with God and responsibilities of physical and moral purity. 8: This unanimous agreement is reaffirmed after the covenant is presented (24.7). 9: Cloud, see 3.2n. Hear, denoting an auditory the ophany; v. 11 implies a visual one. The people will truly trust Moses when they hear him converse directly with God (v. 19; cf. 4.1–9; 14.31n.) and then will accept what God communicates to them through Moses. 10–15: God’s presence will render the mountain intensely holy and too dangerous for people (cf. 24.11) to approach (see 3.6n.); even being at a slight remove requires purification. 10: People, perhaps only men; see v. 15n. Consecrate, that is, make ritually fit to approach divine sanctity (Josh 3.5); wash, an antidote to ritual impurity (see 29.4). 12: Limits (and v. 23), the border around dangerous sanctity. Death, because the intense holiness of God’s presence has a dangerous quality (also v. 21; 20.19); see 24.9–11n. and Num 4.15. 13: Go up on the mountain differs from v. 12, in which the people do not ascend the mountain. 14: Consecrated … washed, see v. 10n. 15: Go near a woman, that is, have sex, which causes ritual impurity (Lev 15.18). Addressed to men, this seems to exclude women from experiencing the theophany; but see 20.1–17n. 16–19: Intense natural phenomena—thunder, lightning, a thick cloud, dense smoke, violent shaking—together connote the extraordinary phenomenon of revelation (Judg 5.4–5; Pss 18.7–15; 68.7–8; Hab 3.3–6; cf. 1 Kings 19.11–13). A blaring trumpet, otherwise used to herald sovereigns (as 1 Kings 1.34) or signal momentous (as 1 Sam 13.3; Isa 18.3) and sacred (as Lev 25.9) events, augments the sensory images. 20–25: Three zones of sanctity are established: holiest at the top for God and Moses (vv. 20,24); a middle stage for Aaron (v. 24) and perhaps leaders (v. 22; 24.1–2,9–11); least holy at the bottom for the people (vv. 12,17,21,23). These zones correspond to the tabernacle’s three levels of holiness (see 25.1–31.17.).

20.1–24.18: Covenant. The stipulations of the covenant—Decalogue (20.1–17) and covenant rules (20.22–23.19)—are interspersed with additional Sinai narratives (20.18–21; 23.20–24.18).

20.1–17: Decalogue (also Deut 5.6–21). These “Ten Commandments,” also found with some variations in Deuteronomy 5, are not numbered or titled here but are later called “ten words,” that is, “ten sayings” or “ten matters” in 34.28; Deut 4.13; 10.4 (see 18.26n.; 35.1n.). Set forth in apodictic (absolute) form, they are not universal laws nor a concise summary of biblical law. Rather, they are unconditional community precepts, both injunctions and prohibitions, rather than laws, which typically have punishments. Unlike any other ancient Near Eastern materials, the Decalogue creates moral standards for a society; obedience is to be a function of divine authority, not fear of punishment. Containing more than ten statements, and not numbered in the Bible, they are counted in diverse ways.

The first several deal with human obligations to God and are accompanied by motive clauses (explanations); the others concern social issues and usually do not mention God. Because its pronouns are all second‐person masculine singular, the Decalogue seems to address individually adult men responsible for land‐holding Israelite households with servants (as v. 17), with its stipulations otherwise applying to all people as appropriate. Yet, in Hebrew the masculine singular can be inclusive; cf. v. 10 (and see Gen 2.24). 1: God spoke these words to the people directly, not through Moses. 2: Divine self‐identification and recapitulation of past benefaction (see 19.4n.). 3: Worship of the Lord alone, without denying other deities; see 15.11n. 4–6: Worship of God without anthropomorphic images perhaps distinguished Israelite religion from those of their neighbors. 4: Idol (Heb “pesel”), a carved image; cf. 34.17n. 5: Jealous (or “zealous”) God is a recurring phrase (also 34.14; Deut 4.24; 5.9; 6.15) indicating God’s passionate resolve to deal with those worshiping other deities. To the … generation, transgenerational guilt (see 34.7; cf. Gen 15.16) is sometimes rejected (Jer 31.29–30; Ezek 18). 7: God’s name, which represents God’s presence (20.24; Deut 5.12; etc.), is potent and cannot be misused (as in false oaths, Jer 7.9). 8: The sabbath is to be holy (v. 8; the same Heb word is translated consecrated in v. 11), that is, distinct from other days (see 16.23–30n.), and is directed to God as creator (v. 11, as in the Priestly creation story [Gen 1.1–2.3]; contrast Deut 5.15). 8: Remember (contrast Deut 5.12) suggests that memory involves action. 9: Work, perhaps skilled work, though the term is never defined in any sabbath legislation; however, cooking is implied in ch 35.1–3 (see 35.3n.). 10: “Wife” is omitted from the otherwise inclusive list of seven entities enjoined to observe the sabbath, perhaps because she is included in you; see 20.1–17n. 12: Parental authority, akin to that of God, likewise deserves honor (see 14.4n., where “glory” is from the same root as honor, and 21.15,17n.). 13: Murder is forbidden, but not killing in war or in capital punishment. 14: Adultery, sexual intercourse between a man and a married or betrothed woman, is a grave offense (Lev 20.10; Deut 22.22) because lineages could be compromised by this infidelity. 15: Theft of both persons and property is prohibited; the Heb word for “kidnap” (21.16) is the same as for steal. 16: Forbidding false witness indicates strong concerns for justice (23.1–3). 17: Considered two separate precepts in some traditions (cf. Deut 5.21), this one addresses the male head of household; see 20.1–17n. Forbidding the mental process of coveting, the cause of the transgressions of adultery and theft (already prohibited in vv. 14 and 15), is unusual; but the intense emotional state of covet (Heb root “ḥmd”) here implies the results of that state as well as the state itself (see Mic 2.1–2). Covet appears twice in succession; first before the general category house (better “household”), and the second before an enumeration of some of a household’s components.

20.18–21: The Sinai account resumes, with the people insisting that Moses transmit God’s word. 18: Thunder … lightning … trumpet … smoking, see 19.16–19n. 19: Die, see 19.13n.

20.22–23.33: Community regulations. This collection of legal materials, called “book of the covenant” [Heb “sefer ha‐berit”] (24.7) or “Covenant Code” or “Covenant Collection,” has affinities of form and content with other ancient law legal traditions. A discrete scribal collection, with laws—especially agricultural ones and those mentioning houses—inapplicable to a wilderness setting, it was likely incorporated into the Sinai narrative to afford it divine authority. The oldest of the legal materials in the Pentateuch, many of its stipulations probably arose in premonarchic village settings. Introductory instructions (20.22–26) and a concluding narrative (23.20–33) frame a two‐part enumeration of legal materials. The first part (21.1–22.17) consists mainly of casuistic materials (case laws with attached punishments). The second part (22.18–23.19) comprises ethical or religious norms and exhortations typically expressed in apodictic or absolute form. These two parts may reflect the merging of ancient customary regulations with covenant‐oriented materials.

20.22–26: Introductory instructions in the second‐person plural. The forbidden statues (see 20.4–5) made of costly silver and gold are contrasted with simple, low sacrificial altars of earth or unhewn stones. Sacrifice can take place wherever people invoke God’s name (presence); contrast 27.1–8 and the single “place” for sacrifice in Deuteronomy (Deut 12.5–14; etc.). 26: Nakedness may not be exposed, perhaps because undergarments were not normally worn; contrast 28.42.

21.1–22.20: Ordinances (rulings) and statutes (rules). In form and content, this section resembles other ancient Near Eastern legal collections. It comprises four sections: two groups of rulings (ordinances, v. 1), beginning with when or if, on specific cases (21.1–11; 21.18–22.17), and stringent rules (statutes) beginning with whoever or you (21.12–17; 22.18–20).

21.2–11: Manumission regulations (cf. Deut 15.12–18; Lev 25.39–55) for indentured Israelite (lit., “Hebrew,” v. 2; see 1.15n.) servants; they provide procedures rather than penalties. Laws dealing with servitude usually come at the end of ancient Near Eastern law collections; here they are first, indicating the humanitarian interests of the “book of the covenant” and/or its placement immediately after Israel’s liberation from slavery. 2–6: Regulations for a manservant. 2: Buy, better “acquire.” Slave, better “debt‐servant” (also v. 7). Six years, term limit for debt servitude. 5–6: The servant can irrevocably forego independence; a physical mark involving little trauma signifies his subjugation (v. 6). 6: Before God, probably at a local sanctuary (also 22.9). 7–11: A maidservant’s rights are different because her master or his son has rights to both her reproductive capacity and her labor; contrast Deut 15.12, 17.

21.12–32: Violence regulations include absolute rules for capital offenses (vv. 12–17) and case rulings concerning assaults by humans (18–27) and animals (28–32). 12–14: Important distinction, appearing three other times in the Hebrew Bible (Num 35.9–29,31–34; Deut 19.1–13; Josh 20.1–9) between deliberate and accidental homicide. 13: Place to … flee because the victim’s kin would seek revenge. 15,17: Two rules supporting parental authority, probably over adult children in an extended family (also Lev 20.9). 16: Kidnap, lit., “steal”; see 20.15n. 17: Curses were believed to have potency and thus were as serious as physical assault. 18–19: Temporary injury, less serious than permanent injury, has lesser punishments. 20: Slave, probably a non‐Israelite (cf. vv. 21,32). 22–27: Measure‐for‐measure punishment, or “lex talionis” (Lev 24.19–20; Deut 19.21) is a principle of fair treatment of assailants and not necessarily a literal prescription for retaliatory treatment in all cases. Note that compensation is sometimes acceptable (vv. 22,26,27) and that the rabbinic understanding of talion calls for paying damages 28–32: Goring ox cases, similar to those in Mesopotamian law (see esp. Laws of Hammurabi 250–52), mandate liability for accidental or negligent homicide, though in Israelite law no benefit may accrue from the ox. 30: Ransom instead of death, because the cause was negligence, not murder. 32: A chattel slave (as in v. 21) rather than an indentured servant (as in vv. 2–11), because monetary value is assigned. A shekel weighed about.4 oz (11.4 gm).

21.33–22.15: Property and restitution, more case rulings. 21.33–36: Compensation for death or injury to animals because of negligence. 22.1–4: Theft of property (cf. 22.16n.). Sold, debt‐servitude to secure funds for the fine. 2–3: Nighttime theft is more serious, presumably because the intruder’s intent is less clear. 5–6: Restitution for agricultural damages caused by negligence. 7–15: Restitution for loss of property in another’s care. 9–11: Two cases of judicial impasse. Disputes lacking evidence or witnesses are decided, as elsewhere in the ancient Near East, using unspecified ritual mechanisms to elicit divine judgment; cf. Num 5.11–31. 9: This is mine, an oath tantamount to a self‐curse, causing divine punishment if the person is lying.

22.16–20: Social and religious stipulations, including one case ruling (22.16–17) and three rules (22.18–20). 16–17: Consensual premarital sex obligates the man to marry the woman or compensate her father for the decrease, because of her lost virginity, in the bride‐price (better “marital gift” or “bridewealth,” because the payment did not mean a man was buying a wife) a future husband might pay. 16: Seduces, not coerces, implying her consent. 18–20: Like 21.12–17, this second group of absolute rules—prohibiting sorcery (cf. Deut 18.10–11), bestiality (cf. Lev 18.23; 20.15–16; Deut 27.21), and apostasy—are unequivocal and involve capital punishment. 20: Devoted to destruction (execution) elsewhere entails eradicating the offender’s family and confiscating their property (Lev 27.28–29).

22.21–23.19. Ethical and religious exhortations and norms. The stipulations of the second part of the community regulations (see 20.22–23.33.) are mostly unconditional. Some concern social relationships and justice (22.21–27; 23.1–12) and others involve obligations to God (22.28–31; 23.13–19), thus linking humanitarian and religious matters. 22.21–27: Concern for the disadvantaged appears repeatedly in the Pentateuch (e.g., 23.6,9–12; Lev 19.33–34; 23.22; Deut 1.16; 10.18–19; 24.17–22) but not in other ancient Near Eastern law collections. 22–24: The concept of measure for measure, or “one reaps what one sows” (cf. Judg 1.7; Obad 15), appears in the warning that God will punish with death those who abuse widows and orphans; the wives of such people will be widowed and their children fatherless. 28–31: Several religious matters: prohibitions (vv. 28,31) and prescriptions (vv. 29–30). 28: A human leader, like God, is unassailable. Cf. Lev 24.15–16; 1 Kings 21.10,13. 29–30: Appears to require child sacrifice, like animal sacrifice, or perhaps the dedication of the firstborn to service at a sanctuary; but see 13.2.n.; 34.19–20; Num 18.27; no provision for redemptions is given. 31: Consecrated (lit., “holy”), see 19.6n. Elsewhere, to be edible animals must be drained of their blood (Lev 7.24; 17.13–15). 23.1–12: Judicial integrity (vv. 1–3,6–8) and the protection of animals and marginal groups (vv. 4–5,6,9–12). 1–3: 20.16; Lev 19.12,15; Deut 19.15–19. 4–5: Cf. Deut 22.1–4. 6–9: See 22.21–27n. 10–11: A seventh‐year agricultural hiatus to benefit the poor. 12: A seventh‐day rest (see 16.23–30n.) benefits animals, servants, and foreigners; contrast 20.8–11. 13–19: Obligations to God. 13: See 15.11n, 20.3. 14–19a: The three major agricultural festivals, commemorated as pilgrimage festivals to the local shrine (cf. 34.22–23): unleavened bread (linked to passover and the Exodus; see 12.15n.); harvest, or first fruits, also called Shavuot or Festival of Weeks or Pentecost (34.22,26; Lev 23.15–21; Deut 16.9–12); ingathering, also called Sukkot or Festival of Booths (Lev 23.33–43; Deut 16.13–15). 17: All your males, contrast Deut 31.11–12. Before the Lord God, presumably wherever there is an altar (20.22–26n.); contrast Deut 16.2,6,7,11,15,16, which stipulate pilgrimage to one place. 18: The blood prohibition applies to all sacrifices, not just festival ones. Until the morning, cf. 12.8. 19a: House, general designation for a shrine (Gen 28.22). The first fruits elsewhere constitute a tax to support priests (also Deut 26.1–3; Neh 10.36–37; see 29.26–34n.) 19b: Milk, perhaps “fat,” likely prohibiting the slaughter of the kid’s mother to protect her breeding potential (also 34.26b; Deut 14.21).

23.20–33: The Sinai narrative resumes with further divine promises and admonitions. 20–23: The angel (lit., “messenger”) represents God’s presence (see 3.2n.; 3.19–20n.). 22: Enemy … foes employs Near Eastern treaty language. 23–33: Cf. 34.11–17. 23,28: See 3.2n. 3.8n. 24: Cf. 20.3; 23.13. Pillars, upright stones, considered idolatrous (34.13; Lev 26.1; Deut 12.3, etc.), but in some sources and circumstances acceptable (e.g., Gen 28.16–22). 25–26: Sustenance, health, and progeny are the blessings produced by covenant fealty (Lev 26.3–10; Deut 28.1–6). 27–30: The land’s indigenous inhabitants will be gradually expelled; in Deuteronomy and related literature, they are to be exterminated (e.g., Deut 7.2; Josh 10–11). 31: One of several traditions about the extent of the land (e.g., Gen 15.18; Num 34.1–12). Red Sea, see 13.18n. The sea of the Philistines, the Mediterranean. 32–33: Their gods, see 15.11n.

24.1–18: Theophanies and covenant ceremonies. Repetitive or conflicting details again (see 19.1–25n.) indicate a composite narrative about God’s appearance—to Moses and the leaders (vv. 1–2,9–11), and to Moses alone (vv. 12–18). Covenant ratification rituals are known from ancient Near Eastern documents. 1–2: Several zones of sanctity are implied; see 19.20–25n. 1: Nadab and Abihu, Aaron’s two eldest sons; see 6.23n. 3–8: Covenant ceremony. 3: Words, referring to the Decalogue (see 20.1–17n.), and ordinances, referring to the community rulings (see 0.22–23.33.). One voice, unanimous agreement; cf. 19.8. 4: Moses wrote, see 24.12n. Pillars, see 23.24n. 5: Burnt offerings … offerings of well‐being (cf. 18.12), the former burned entirely, with the rising smoke constituting God’s portion (Lev 1); the latter provided a ceremonial feast for the participants (v. 11; cf. Deut 27.6–7). Celebratory repasts bind those sharing the meal (here, God and the people); see 18.12n. 6–8: Another ratification ritual, again involving the reading and ratification of the covenant, draws on the lifedeath quality of blood (see 22.31n.); throwing half on the people and half on the altar (for God, as 20.24) links them. 7: Book of the covenant, see 20.22–23.33. 8: On the people, perhaps on the pillars (v. 4) representing them. Made, lit., “cut,” denotes covenant making (also 34.10,12,15 and elsewhere, e.g., Gen 26.28; Judg 2.2). 9–11: Partway up the mountain (continuing from vv. 1–2), the leaders too have a ceremonial meal and, despite the danger (see 3.6n.), have a visual experience of God. 10: Saw … God … feet suggests anthropomorphism; elsewhere, seeing God directly is too dangerous (see 3.2n.,6n.; 33.11n.,23n.). Sapphire, better “lapis lazuli”; cf. Ezek 1.26. 12–18: The theophany to Moses alone in the holiest zone combines two sources: the E narrative of vv. 12–14 will resume in the golden calf episode of 31.18–34.35, and the P narrative of vv. 25–18 continues in the next chapter 12: Tablets, probably two (31.18; 32.15); important documents were recorded in duplicate. I have written, i.e., God writes the document (also 31.18; 32.16; 34.1; Deut 9.10); contrast 24.4; 34.27–28. 13–14: Joshua and Hur appear for the second time (17.9n.; 17.10n.). 15–17: Cloud and fire, see 3.2n. and 19.16–19n. Glory of the Lord, see 16.7n. 15: Covered, see 40.34n. 16: Settled, better “dwelled,” uses the same Heb root as the noun for God’s wilderness dwelling, the tabernacle, introduced in the following chapter; see 25.9n.

Chs 25–40: Sanctuary and new covenant. The focus of the rest of Exodus is the construction of the wilderness tabernacle as an earthly home for God. Detailed directions for building the portable shrine (25.1–27.21; 30.1–31.18) and for clothing and inaugurating its priests (28.1–29.46) are followed by an account of its construction so God’s presence can enter (35.1–40.38). Much of the information in the second section is the same as in the first, although the internal order differs. Between the two sections comes the golden calf episode (chs 32–34), in which the covenant is broken and restored.

25.1–31.18: Instructions for building the tabernacle and inaugurating the priesthood. Unlike religious edifices today, which are places that people enter to worship, temples and shrines in the ancient world were considered earthly residences for deities (see 25.8) and were off‐limits for most humans. They were costly, well‐furnished structures, befitting their divine occupants. A modest tent‐shrine, perhaps reflected in the term “tent of meeting” (see 27.21n.), may have existed in early Israel; but the elaborate and costly Exodus tabernacle is likely a virtual structure, based somewhat on knowledge of the later Jerusalem Temple. Like Mount Sinai (and the Jerusalem Temple), the portable wilderness shrine has three zones of sanctity; see 19.20–25n. Following an introduction (25.1–9) and instructions for making the sacred furnishings (25.10–40) are directions for making the structure (ch 26) and its courtyard and altar (27.1–19). Directives for lamp oil (27.20–21) precede a concluding section (28.1–31.18) that includes instructions for the vestments (ch 28), the consecration (ch 29) of the priests, and the making of other furnishings and of incense (ch 30) and ends with God’s announcing the two chief artisans and mandating sabbath observance (ch 31).

25.1–9: Introduction: the materials (also 35.4–29). Seven kinds of substances (metals, yarn, skins, wood, oil, spices, and gemstones) signify the totality of supplies. 2: Offering … hearts, indicating that materials will come from donations, not taxes. 3: Three precious metals will be used according to the three zones of sanctity (see 19.20–25n.), with gold for the most holy and bronze for the least holy. 5: Acacia, an insect‐resistant hardwood found in arid regions. 8: Sanctuary, see 15.17n. Dwell among them, indicating that the shrine will be God’s earthly residence (see 25.1–31.17.). The Heb term for dwell denotes a moveable presence rather than one tied to a fixed location. 9: Pattern designates the heavenly abode that is model for the earthly one (see 3.8n.). Tabernacle, a noun formed from the Heb verb “to dwell” (see v. 8n.). Used fifty‐eight times in Exodus, here it refers to the entire sacred complex. It can also denote just the tent structure (e.g., 26.1).

25.10–40: Interior furnishings. Described first, the most holy item, the gold‐covered ark (vv. 10–22), will be situated in the inner sanctum. Three more gold items—table (vv. 23–30), lampstand (vv. 31–40), and incense altar (not prescribed in this section; see 30.1–10)—will be near the ark, in the main room of the shrine.

25.10–22: The ark and its cover (also 37.1–9). A gilded chest that will contain the sacred covenant document, the ark has a lid surmounted by winged creatures over which God’s invisible presence rests. In ancient Israel’s aniconic tradition, the ark comes becomes a material symbol of God (see 1 Sam 4.4; 2 Sam 6.2; cf. Ex 25.31–40n.). 10: It is similar in size (ca. 45 × 27 × 27 in = 114 × 69 × 69 cm) to ancient Egyptian chests for keeping valuables. 12–15: Rings and poles for transport are known from ancient Egypt and Syria. 16: The Heb word for covenant here (“˓edut”; cf. 2.24n.; 20.22–23.33.) is favored by the Priestly writer; perhaps referring to the tablets of 24.12, it is similar to the word for “meet,” thus signifying the role of the ark as a place for oracular revelations (v. 22; 29.42–43; 33.7–10) and alluding to another name (“tent of meeting”; see 27.20n.; 27.21n.; 38.8n.) for the wilderness shrine. 17–22: The ark’s cover (mercy seat) features composite beings (cherubim) whose wings form the throne, with the ark as its footstool, on which God’s invisible presence rests (1 Sam 4.4; 1 Chr 28.2; Pss 99.1,5; 132.7); see 16.34n. Similar figures as components of thrones are known from ancient Near Eastern art. 22: Meet, see v. 16n.

25.23–30: The table (also 37.10–16; cf. 1 Kings 7.48) is the repository for sacred vessels and for the bread offering. A dwelling place for a deity, as for humans, needs a table for food. Meat, bread, and liquids are the comestibles set before God, though the priests, not God, consume the bread (Lev 24.5–9). 23: The table’s dimensions (36 × 18 in = 1 ×.5 m; height: 27 in =.75 m) are similar to those of offering tables depicted in ancient Near Eastern art. 27–28: Its rings and poles provide portability; see 25.12–15n. 29: Incense, see 30.7n., 22–38n., 34–38. 30: Bread of the Presence (“bread [set] before [God]”) refers to loaves offered to God on the sabbath.

25.31–40: The lampstand (Heb “menorah”; also 37.17–24) will hold oil lamps for illuminating God’s dwelling (cf. the ten lampstands of the Jerusalem Temple, 1 Kings 7.49). No dimensions are provided. The wealth of botanical terms (branches, calyxes, almond blossoms, petals) suggests that in shape and decoration, it represented a sacred tree and perhaps even God as source of fertility (see 3.2n.). 31: Base and shaft together denote a cylindrical stand flared at the bottom. 37: Seven lamps, perhaps one on each branch; otherwise, a single lamp in the middle (see 27.20n.; Lev 24.2). 39: A talent, or 3,000 shekels, is about 34 kg = 75.5 lb. 40: Pattern, see 25.9n. The divine blueprint must be followed exactly so that God dwells among the people.

26.1–37: The tabernacle structure (also 36.8–38). The tent itself consists of coverings (vv. 1–14), frames (vv. 15–30), and textile partitions (vv. 31–37) that form two interior spaces: the most holy place for the ark, and the holy place where the furnishings will be placed. 1–14: Coverings. The tentlike structure will be formed with two fabric layers—panels of linen and tricolored wools decorated with cherubim (see 25.17–22n.), and unadorned goat‐hair panels—covered with two layers of animal skins (v. 14). 1: Tabernacle, referring to the tent itself; see 25.9n. Linen renders an Egyptian term for a luxury fabric. Blue, purple, and crimson were the most costly and highly prized dyes. 15–30: Frames. A complex system of wooden boards and bars, with metal fastenings and bases, will form frames for the hangings. The information is incomplete, and the size and manner of assembly remain conjectural. But the tent is clearly rectangular (ca. 45 × 15 ft = 13.8 × 4.6 m). 31–37: Partitions. A textile curtain with cherubim decorations (see 25.17–22n.) will subdivide the interior space into two zones of holiness (v. 33), and a textile panel will form the entrance; both will be made of linen and tricolored wool (see 26.1–14n.). 33: Most holy [place], or inner sanctuary (see 1 Kings 6.16).

27.1–19: The courtyard and its altar (also 38.1–20). Directions for making the courtyard altar (27.1–8), on which animals will be burnt (29.13,18) and animal blood will be splashed (29.12,16), precede instructions for making the enclosure wall (ca. 7.5 ft = 2.3 m high), which forms a courtyard (27.9–19) measuring ca. 150 × 75 ft = 45.7 × 22.9 m. 1–8: Altar. The only courtyard object in this passage (see 30.17–21 for the courtyard basin) is the large (ca. 7.5 × 7.5 × 4.5 ft = 2.3 × 2.3 × 1.4 m) and elaborate but portable altar; contrast the earthen altar of 20.24–26. 2: Horns, quarter‐round pieces, on the corners (as for the incense altar, 30.2), are attested in many excavated examples; they are used in the ritual of 29.12. 9–19: Enclosure. As the least sacred zone, the courtyard will have unadorned textiles and metal fittings and utensils mainly of bronze; the linen panel for the entrance, however, will be decorated with tricolored wool (see 26.1n.). The location of the tent within the court is unspecified.

27.20–21: Lamp oil (also 35.8,28). 20: A single lamp belongs to the tradition that uses “tent of meeting” for the wilderness shrine; see v. 21n. (cf. 25.37n.). Regularly means perpetually: light symbolizing divine presence will always be there. 21: Tent of meeting, designating the place where Israelites or their representatives meet God, refers to the tent‐shrine thirty‐four times in Exodus (see 25.16n.); it may reflect a tradition that is separate from and older than texts using “tabernacle” (see 25.9n; see also 39.32n.). Covenant, perhaps elliptical for “ark [or tablets] of the covenant.” Aaron appears for the first time in the tabernacle texts, anticipating the following unit.

28.1–43: Vestments for the priests (also 39.1–31). Included in the instructions for the tabernacle, the vestments are not simply priests’ clothing; some are sacred furnishings and even ritual objects. After an introduction (vv. 1–5), the focus is on Aaron’s apparel (vv. 6–39) and not that of his sons, who were second‐tier priests (vv. 40–43). 1–5: Introduction. The priestly lineage is announced, followed by a summary of the six prescribed vestments to be made of linen and tricolored wool. 1: See the genealogy of 6.16–25, especially v. 23. Aaron has appeared frequently but is first called priest here. No title is given for him in the Pentateuch; the titles “high priest” (as Hag 1.12; Zech 3.1) and “chief priest” (2 Kings 25.18) are in non‐Torah texts. 2: Sacred, better “holy,” because they are worn in and correspond to the shrine’s holy space. 3: All … ability, including women; see 35.4–29n. 5: Sumptuous fabrics, corresponding to those of the shrine’s holy space; see 26.1n. 6–39: Aaron’s garments. The first two—ephod (vv. 6–14) and breastpiece (vv. 15–30), and the turban (vv. 36–38), have ritual functions; the others—robe (vv. 31–35), turban (vv. 36–38), tunic (v. 39), and sash (v. 39)—are opulent garments like those clothing royalty and statues of the gods in the ancient Near East. 6–14: The somewhat enigmatic ephod (contrast other biblical uses, e.g., Judg 8.27; 1 Sam 2.18; 14.3) is a ceremonial garment like a bib or apron, adorned with engraved stones (vv. 9–12) representing and commemorating (remembrance, v. 12; see 13.9n.) the Israelite tribes. Wearing this garment and the breastpiece (next note), Aaron embodies all Israel; oracles he will receive (v. 30) are thus for all Israelites. 15–30: Just as enigmatic in design is the breastpiece of judgment. Like the ephod to which it is attached, it has gemstones (twelve of them) representing (vv. 17–21) and commemorating (remembrance, v. 29; see 13.9n.) the Israelite tribes. Also, it has a pouch for the Urim and Thummim (v. 30). They are specially marked pebbles or rocks cast or thrown to secure divine decisions, a form of divination (cf. Num 27.21; 1 Sam 14.41) like casting lots, often used to decide difficult matters (e.g., Josh 18.6,8; Prov 16.33). Set close to its wearer’s heart, the site of intellect and wisdom, the breastpiece was to be used in seeking divine judgment on legal matters. 31–35: The robe is adorned at its hem with tricolored woolen pomegranates, like the tassels appearing on the clothing of deities and royalty in ancient Near Eastern iconography. The golden bells at the hem bring the auditory sense into the shrine; their jingling was perhaps apotropaic as the priest approached the dangerous, most holy zone (v. 35; see 3.6n.; 19.13n.; 30.7n.). 36–38: The headpiece was to be a turban (also v. 39) notable for its golden rosette (and also a crown; see diadem, 29.6). The rosette’s engraved words were perhaps part of a ritual protecting the priest as he approached the perfect (and dangerous) purity of God’s presence; see preceding note. Favor (or “acceptance”; cf. Jer 14.10) is the opposite of any guilt (better “sin”) that Israelites may commit in their sacrifices. 39: An embroidered sash and a checkered (more likely, “fringed”) tunic complete the vestments for Aaron. 40–43: Vestments for other priests, less elaborate and costly than those for Aaron. 42: Undergarments, perhaps “trousers”; see 20.26n. 43: Perpetual … descendants, that is, the hereditary priestly lineage.

29.1–46: Consecration of the priests. Priestly authority derives from installation rites as well as from symbolic garments. The rites are described (vv. 1–37), followed by instructions for a regular sacrifice (vv. 38–43) and a final summation (vv. 44–46). 1–37: Installation procedures (enacted in Lev 8), which will last seven days and are performed by Moses acting as priest, comprise three rites and the sacrifice of three animals for expiatory and purificatory purposes. 1–9: Three rites: washing, dressing, anointing. 1: Consecrate (to make holy) appears seven times in this chapter. 4: Wash, see 19.10n. 7: Anointing Aaron (but not his sons; contrast 28.41; 30.30) is a symbolic procedure marking transition to a new status (as for royalty, 1 Sam 9.16); here it affords priests the requisite holiness for entering the tabernacle’s holy space. 5: Vestments, see notes to ch 28. 9: Ordain, lit., “fill the hand,” an idiom alluding to the scepter or staff often held by an officer; it thus signifies the rights and duties of a position. 10–37: Animal sacrifices. The first two—bull of purification (vv. 10–14; see Lev 4.1–12) and ram for burnt offering (vv. 15–18; see Lev 1)—prepare the priests; the third and most elaborate is the ram for their ordination (vv. 19–34; see the well‐being offering, Lev 3). 12: Horns, see 27.2n. The altar itself must be purified. 14: The sin offering effects the moral purification necessary for approaching God’s total purity. Some scholars consider this an offering that removes ritual impurity from sections of the tabernacle. 18: Burnt offering, see 24.5n. Pleasing odor, see Gen 8.21. 20: Sprinkling the ram’s blood on the priests’ extremities (lobes … thumbs … toes), which represent their entire bodies, substitutes animal blood and death for that of the priests; their symbolic death means they belong to God. 22: Ordination, see v. 9n. 24: Elevation offering, lifted to God. 26–34: Without lands or agricultural holdings, priests depended on a portion of the sacrifice for their maintenance (Lev 7.31–36; 22.1–16; see 23.19n.); the meat and accompanying bread are eaten in sacred space, affirming their special relationship with God (see 24.5n.). 35–37: During the seven‐day installation ceremonies, the altar too must be purified and sanctified (also v. 12). 38–42: Regular sacrifices. A daily burnt offering (see 24.5n.) of animals with grain, oil, and wine is prescribed (see Num 28.3–8). 40: Hin, a liquid measure (4 qts = 3.8 L). 42–43: Meet, see 25.16n. 44–46: Summation, using covenant language (see 6.7n.; 19.4n.; 20.2n.). 45–46: Dwell, see 25.8n.

30.1–31.18. Additional instructions. The instructions conclude with information about four more components (incense altar, basin, oil, incense) of the shrine and about a census, the artisans, and the sabbath. 30.1–10: Incense altar (also 37.25–28). Smaller (ca. 18 × 18 × 36 in = 5 ×.5 × 1.0 m) than the horned courtyard altar (see 27.2n.), it is the third golden object to be placed in front of the inner sanctum (see 25.10–40n.). 7: Fragrant incense (vv. 34–38) involves the olfactory senses. 9: Food is not offered on this altar. 10: See Lev 16.29–34; cf. Num 16.46. Sin offering, see 29.14n. 11–16: Census. People are counted for taxes or for conscription (Num 1). Ancient peoples believed that counting people could bring disaster (as 2 Sam 24), and the payment here is to prevent misfortune. 13: Shekel, a weight (ca. 4 oz = 11.4 gm), not a coin. The half‐shekel (“beka”) of the census is mentioned in the metal inventory (38.26). Shekel of the sanctuary may allude to a priestly role in maintaining standard weights. 16: Reminder, see 13.9n. 17–21: Basin (also 38.8; 40.7,30). Made of bronze, the least holy metal, the washstand will be placed in the least sacred zone, the courtyard. Washing is part of the process of purification before approaching the perfect purity of God’s presence (see 19.10n.). 22–38: Oil and incense (also 37.29) are to be made of costly aromatic substances: myrrh, cinnamon, aromatic cane, and cassia, along with olive oil, for the oil (vv. 22–25); and several kinds of resin (stacte, galbanum, frankincense), a variety of cinnamon (onycha), and salt for the incense (v. 34). Anointing will change the status of the shrine, its furnishings, and its personnel from profane to holy; see 29.7n. 24: Hin, see 29.40n. 36: Tent of meeting … meet, see 27.21n. 31.1–11: Artisans (also 35.30–36.7). Two chief artisans are designated, one from the southernmost tribe (Judah) and one from the northernmost (Dan). 2: Bezalel, see 1 Chr 2.18–20. Hur, see 17.10n. 3: Divine spirit, see v. 11n. Ability (or “wisdom, skill”), intelligence, and knowledge constitute artistic genius (cf. 1 Kings 7.14). 6: Oholiab is otherwise unknown. 11: Do … commanded implies that human creativity is subordinated to divine inspiration. 12–17: Sabbath (also 35.2–3), see 16.23–30n. The sabbath injunction adds the theme of sacred time to the sacred space set forth in the preceding chapters. 12: The command for the seventh‐day observance is introduced by a phrase—The Lord said/spoke to Moses—used here for the seventh time in this section (25.1; 30.11,17,22,34; 31.1,12). 17: In Priestly tradition, as circumcision signifies the covenant with Abraham (Gen 17), so the sabbath is the sign of the covenant with Israel. 18: This verse concludes the tabernacle instructions and resumes the narrative of the Sinai theophany (24.18). Two tablets … written, see 24.12n.

32.1–34.35: Covenant violation and restoration. The golden‐calf apostasy (also Deut 9.7–21; Ps 106.19–23; Neh 9.16–21) interrupts the tabernacle sequence, yet parallels it in some ways: a command to construct, contributions of gold, construction, an altar and sacrifices. It thus contrasts the proper response to God in the chapters following this section, with the sinful one it describes. The people’s sins arouse divine wrath; Moses too is angry but intercedes several times (ch 32). After Moses seeks God’s presence and pleads again for his people (ch 33), God reestablishes the covenant (ch 34). 32.1–35: Sin, divine anger, and several intercessions by Moses. This episode shares many details with the account of Jeroboam (first king of the northern kingdom, 928–907 bce) erecting golden calves in Dan and Bethel (1 Kings 12.28–33; see also Deut 9.7–10.11). 1: Delayed, for forty days and nights (24.18). Make gods, that is, provide visible evidence of divine presence. Man who brought, that is, Moses; not acknowledging that God had actually rescued them, they seek a replacement for Moses, whose prolonged absence creates anxiety. 2–3: Gold rings (earrings); cf. 3.22; Gen 35.4; Judg 8.24. 4: A calf (better “young bull”), like cherubim, could form the pedestal for the deity to stand on when descending to earth; or it may have been an object of worship, representing bovine strength and fertility associated with the Lord. Gods, a plural form (also vv. 1,8,23,31) like 1 Kings 12.28; contrast Neh 9.18 and Ps 106.19–20, which refer to a single deity. 5: Festival to the Lord, indicating that the calves are not images of another deity. 6: Burnt offerings … well‐being, see 24.5n. Eat … drink, typical components of sacrificial events, which were occasions for community enjoyment as well as ritual activity. Revel (perhaps “dance”), another component of festal events. 7: Your people, not “my people” (3.7; 5.1; etc.). You, that is, Moses (also 33.1; cf. 20.2; 32.11–12, where God secures Israel’s freedom). 8: Cast …image, of metal: see 34.17n. 10–12: Wrath … burn hot … consume, invokes the language of conflagration to express the intense and utter destructiveness of punitive plagues (Num 11.33; 16.35,46; 25.4,8–9,11). 11: Moses’s first plea for the people. Mighty hand, see 3.19n. 13: Moses reminds God that the ancestral covenant (see 2.24n.) is unconditional and irrevocable (Gen 13.15–16; etc.). 15–16: Tablets … written, see 24.12n. 17: Joshua is partway up the mountain (24.9–14). 19: The Heb term for dancing denotes circle dancing, usually done by women (as 15.20). 20: Burned … ground is idiomatic language for complete demolition (cf. 2 Kings 23.15). Moses subjects the people to a trial by ordeal (cf. Num 5.16–28). Those who suffer ill effects from coerced drinking are considered guilty and are punished (v. 35). 21–24: Aaron, however, remains unpunished (cf. Num 12), perhaps because the priesthood in later times was traced to him. 24: By saying he threw the gold into the fire, Aaron claims he did not intend to make a calf, contra v. 4. 26–29: The shocking violence of the Levites, perhaps reflecting an ancient power struggle, earns them eternal priesthood. 30: Perhaps, suggesting that divine forgiveness cannot be assumed. 31–32: Moses’s second plea for the people. 32–33: Book, cf. Ps 69.28; Dan 12.1; Mal 3.16. 33: God asserts individual rather than communal responsibility. 34: The people, not “my people”; see v. 7n. Angel, see 3.2n.; 23.23. 35: The plague is punitive (see 7.8–10.29.; 32.10–12n.).

33.1–23. The divine presence is secured through a third plea by Moses. 1:You, see 32.7n. The people, see 32.34n. 2: Angel, see 3.2n.; 23.23; 32.34. Canaanites … Hivites, see 3.8n. 3: Flowing … honey, see 3.8n. Among, see 17.6n.; the divine presence can be punitive as well as beneficial. Consume, see 32.10–12n. 7: Tent of meeting refers to a simple tent shrine, with oracular functions, mentioned in Exodus along with the more elaborate Priestly tabernacle structure. This indicates that Exodus combines several traditions about a community shrine; see 25.16n.; 27.20n.,21n.; 39.32n. Sought the Lord, elliptical for seeking an oracular pronouncement from God, here procured by Moses, not priests; see 28.6–14n., 15–30n. 9–10: Pillar of cloud, divine presence; see 3.2n. 11: Face to face, an expression of intimacy available only to Moses (see Num 12.7–8; Deut 34.10–12) rather than an indication that he literally sees God’s face (see vv. 20,23n). 13: Your people is covenant terminology (see 6.7n.); Moses reminds God of this relationship (contrast 32.7; 33.1). 14: My presence will go, better, “I personally will go.” 17: God knows Moses’s name, and Moses will know God’s (v. 19; see 3.15n), an expression of reciprocal intimacy 18: Glory, God’s royal splendor or appearance, rather than the Priestly idea of fire in a cloud; see 3.2n.; 16.7n. 19: I will be gracious … mercy, see 34.6. 20: Face, see 3.2n.; 3.6n.; 24.10n.; 33.11n.,23n. 23: Back (like arm, hand, and face) refers to God in anthropomorphic terms; see also 31.18; cf. 3.6n.

34.1–35: Covenant restoration and Moses’s fourth plea to God. 1: Moses is to cut (lit., “carve”) the tablets (see 24.12n.; contrast 32.16, where God makes them); write, see 24.12n. Words, referring to the ten words (sayings, matters) of the Decalogue, v. 28; see 18.26n.; 20.1–17n. 3: As a holy zone, access to the mountain is restricted; cf. 19.13n., 20–25n. 5: Cloud, see 3.2n. Name, see 33.17n. 6–7: This catalogue of divine qualities, part of which is known in Jewish tradition as the Thirteen Attributes of God, appears fully or in part repeatedly in the Bible, sometimes omitting transgenerational punishment (20.5–6; Num 14.18–19; Deut 7.9–10; etc.). Generation, see 20.5n. 9: Inheritance, or “possession”; see 15.17n. 11–26: These stipulations concerning religious obligations and festivals include features of the Decalogue (especially 20.3,4,8–11) and of the community regulations (especially 23.14–19). Because its primary focus is on worship, it is often considered an alternative Decalogue, part of the J source, called the Ritual Decalogue; however, it could also be a redactional supplement. 10: Make a covenant (also vv. 12,15), see 24.8n. 11: Drive, see 23.27–30n. Amorites … Jebusites, see 3.8n. 13: Altars and pillars (see 23.24n.) dedicated to gods of other peoples are forbidden, as are sacred poles, probably symbols of Asherah, a Canaanite goddess associated with the Lord in several ancient inscriptions. See also Deut 7.5; 12.3. 14: See 20.3n.; 20.5n. 15–16: See Num 25.1–15 for an example of such conduct. Prostitute, sexual metaphors sometimes characterize human‐deity relationships, both positively and negatively (e.g., Isa 62.4–5; Jer 2.2; Ezek 16; 23; Hos 1–3). 16: Intermarriage with local peoples—but not with all other peoples—is prohibited only for men (Gen 24.3; Ezra 9.2; etc.; but cf. Deut 7.3; Josh 23.12–13; etc.). 17: Cast (Heb “massekah”), made of metal rather than the sculpted image (see 20.4n.) of the Decalogue, an apparent rebuke for the golden calf incident. 18–26: For the three festivals, see 23.14–19a n.; for unleavened bread, see 12.5n.; for the sabbath (v. 21), see 16.23–30n.; for the kid‐cooking regulation, see 23.19bn.; for the firstborn redemption, see 13.2n.,13n. 27: Moses is to write; see 24.12n. For words, see 34.1n.; for tablets, see 24.12n. 28: Forty … nights, like the first time, 24.18. Ten commandments, better “ten words” or “ten matters” (see 18.26n.; 20.1–17n.), refers here to the ritual regulations in vv. 11–26, although listing ten discrete regulations is difficult. 29–35: Moses’s special status, as mediator between the people and God, is manifest in his radiating countenance, akin to divine luminosity (Ps 104.2; Ezek 1.27–28; Hab 3.4) too intense to be routinely visible (see 3.2n.; 3.6n.). 29,35: Shone and shining, better “radiant.” The verb used here (from the Heb root “qrn”) means “to radiate.” The related noun “qeren,” usually meaning “horn,” has produced the erroneous notion that Moses had horns.

Chs 35–40: The tabernacle is constructed, and God’s presence enters it. The tabernacle narrative (which began with the instructions of chs 25–31) resumes: performing preliminary procedures (35.2–36.7); making tabernacle components (36.8–39.43); erecting the tabernacle and God’s presence filling it (40.1–38). These chapters contain nearly verbatim repetitions of many passages of chs 25–31, except that they describe actions taken (rather than commanded) and are arranged according to pragmatic construction concerns rather than degree of sanctity. In the LXX version of these chapters, the actions taken are in a different order, and also some of those in the MT are omitted.

35.1–36.7: Preliminary procedures. 35.1–3: Sabbath directives conclude the instructions section (31.12–17; see 16.23–30n.) and begin the construction one, linking the two sections and making the sabbath the temporal equivalent of the spatial construction, the tabernacle. Both involve rest: the people rest on the sabbath, and the Tabernacle is the divine resting place (cf. Isa 66.1; cf. Num 10.33). 1: Things, see 18.26n.; 20.1–17n. 3: Kindle no fire suggests that cooking was the work forbidden on the sabbath; cf. 20.9n. 4–29: Materials (see 25.1–9), provided by both women and men (vv. 22,29; see 11.2n.) include fabrics made by female craftspersons (vv. 25–26; cf. 2 Kings 23.7). 35.30–36.7: Artisans (see 31.1–11), who have the added role of teachers (v. 34), receive materials. 5–7: The amount to be contributed is not specified but is abundant—more than enough (vv. 5,7)—and may reflect guilt over the golden calf incident.

36.8–39.42: The tabernacle components are made: structure (36.8–38), interior furnishings (37.1–29), courtyard and its furnishings (38.1–20), inserted inventory (38.21–31), vestments (39.1–31). Then the work is completed (39.32–42).

36.8–38: Structure (see 26.1–37), consisting of fabrics (vv. 8–19) over frames (vv. 20–34) followed by the internal fabric divider and entry screen (vv. 35–38). 10: He here and in vv. 11–38 is third‐person singular, which would imply Bezalel is constructing the tabernacle by himself. More likely, the third‐person singular is used impersonally as a passive; thus this verse would read “The five curtains were joined ….” Compare v. 8 and 39.1, where the subject (they) of the tabernacle work is plural.

37.1–29: Interior furnishings (see 25.10–40; 30.1–10), and anointing oil and incense (see 30.22–28). The ark for the holiest space comes first (vv. 1–9), followed by all three objects for the holy space: lampstand (vv. 17–24), table, and incense altar (vv. 25–28), which appears separately from the table and the lampstand in the instructions (see 31.1–11n.). The account of making anointing oil and incense (v. 29) is much briefer than in the instructions.

38.1–20: Altar (see 27.1–8), basin (see 30.17–21), and courtyard (see 27.9–19). Unlike in the instructions, the altar (vv. 1–7) and basin (v. 8) here appear sequentially. The basin lacks the functional details of ch 30 but adds that its bronze comes from mirrors of women (also 1 Sam 2.22), who were low‐rank temple servitors. 8: The entrance to the tent of meeting (cf. 27.20n.; 27.21n.; 29.32n.; 38.8n.), the highly significant site of Moses’s oracular interactions with God (33.9–10), was not off‐limits to women (see Num 27.1–2).

38.21–31: The inventory of work and metal materials, beginning with the most valuable (gold), has no parallel in the instructions except for the reference (v. 26) to the silver acquired at the census assessment and earmarked for operating, not construction, expenses. 21: Records, tallies of resources, not accounts of labor. Tabernacle of the covenant, alluding to the tabernacle’s receptacle (ark) for the covenant document (tablets). Work of the Levites here is collecting and accounting; they will eventually maintain and move the shrine (Num 4; 7.1–8). Ithamar, Aaron’s youngest son (6.23; 28.1), has a major administrative role. 22–23: Bezalel … Oholiab, see 31.1–11n. 24: Talent, see 25.39n. The amount of gold is slightly less than Hezekiah’s tribute to Sennacherib (2 Kings 18.14). Sanctuary shekel, see 30.13n. 25–26: For the collected silver, see 30.11–16. The men are slightly more in number (603,550) than in ch 12; see 12.37n. 27–28: Information about the use of silver acquired by census (but not donated) is provided; such information is absent for gold. 30–31: The bronze items are specified; but the basin made of women’s mirrors (38.8) is omitted.

39.1–31: Vestments (see 28.1–43). This section includes some technical details, such as how the ephod’s golden threads were made (v. 3), absent from the instructions section. And it omits some aspects of function: “breastpiece of judgment” appears three times in ch 28 (vv. 15,29,30; see 28.15–30n.) in reference to its oracular function but not here, nor are the Urim and Thummim used for divination (28.30) mentioned. 1: Aaron is named only here and in v. 27, at the beginning and end of this section, whereas he appears frequently (sixteen times) in the instructions. Moses appears seven times (vv. 1,5,7,21,26,29,31), indicating his total involvement, in a formula punctuating the narrative: as the Lord had commanded Moses; cf. 40.16n.).

39.32–43: Completing and inspecting the work, listing the components of the tabernacle in the same order as in chs 35–39 (rather than the order of chs 25–31); see chs 35–40n. 32: Work … finished echoes the Priestly language of Gen 2.2, as does 40.33; the construction of the tabernacle, a microcosm of the cosmos, thus echoes creation. Tabernacle of the tent of meeting, used only here and in 40.2,6,29, combines the two designations of the wilderness shrine and thus its two functions: a place for God’s earthly presence, and a locale for oracular interactions; see 25.16n.; 27.21n. 43: Saw, reminiscent of God seeing the completion of creation (Gen 1.31). Blessed, just as God offers blessings in the creation account (Gen 1.22,28; 2.3).

40.1–38: Erection of the tabernacle, and God’s presence filling it. After the final instructions for assembling and anointing God’s earthly abode (vv. 1–15; cf. 29.4–9; 30.26–30) are carried out (vv. 16–33), except for anointing and consecrating, which take place in Lev 8.10–13, God’s presence enters it (vv. 34–38). Moses alone assembles and sanctifies the tabernacle’s components and consecrates the priests and their vestments. 2: Setting up the tabernacle on the first day of the first month (of the second year after the Exodus; v. 17), that is (the spring) New Year’s day, keys it to creation, to the new creation after the flood (Gen 8.13), and to the beginning of freedom (see 12.2n.). 16: As the Lord had commanded him appears in this introductory command and seven more times, following seven units of assembly (vv. 19,21,23,25,27,29,32), perhaps replicating the seven days of creation (see 39.2n.) but also emphasizing the importance that everything must be done exactly according to divine specifications in order for God to take up residence. 33: Finished the work, see 39.32n. 34–38: Cloud, see 3.2n.; 13.21n. Glory of the Lord, see 16.7n. 34: The cloud covered the shrine, just as it covered the mountain of revelation (24.15). Here it indicates divine satisfaction with the tabernacle as a residence for the divine. 38: House of Israel, which designates the Israelites only here and 16.31 in Exodus, may reflect a wordplay: the Israelites are a house and the Lord now has an earthly house (cf. 2 Sam 7.11,13,16). The cloud and fire (divine presence) will guide the people as they continue their journey (see 12.37n.; 13.21n.; Num 9.15–23; 10.11–28).

^a Sam Gk Tg: Heb lacks to the Hebrews

^a Heb Mosheh

^b Heb mashah

^c Heb ger

^a Or I am what I am or I will be what I will be

^a The word “Lord” when spelled with capital letters stands for the divine name, YHWH, which is here connected with the verb hayah, “to be”

^b Gk Vg: Heb no, not by a mighty hand

^c A term for several skin diseases; precise meaning uncertain

^a Heb his

^a Sam: Heb The people of the land are now many

^b Gk Compare Syr Vg: Heb beaten, and the sin of your people

^a Traditional rendering of Heb El Shaddai

^b Heb YHWH; see note at 3.15

^c Heb me? I am uncircumcised of lips

^d Or Saul

^e Also spelled Gershom; see 2.22

^a Heb am uncircumcised of lips; see 6.12

^a Ch 7.26 in Heb

^a Gk: Heb upon your people

^b Ch 8.1 in Heb

^c Or frogs, as he had agreed with Pharaoh

^a Gk Vg: Heb will set redemption

^a Or Sea of Reeds

^a Or as a frontlet; meaning of Heb uncertain

^a Or Sea of Reeds

^a Sam Gk Syr: MT removed

^b Or song

^a Or Sea of Reeds

^a Or Sea of Reeds

^b That is Bitterness

^c Or a tree

^d Heb he

^a Or “It is manna” (Heb man hu, see verse 31)

^a Or treaty, or testimony; Heb eduth

^b That is Test

^c That is Quarrel

^a Cn: Meaning of Heb uncertain

^b Heb ger

^c Heb Eli, my God; ezer, help

^d The clause because . . . Egyptians has been transposed from verse 10

^a Heb lacks with arrows

^a Or besides

^b Or to thousands

^a Or kill

^b Sam Gk Syr Vg: MT they saw

^a Or to the judges

^b Heb of her

^a Ch 21.37 in Heb

^b Verses 2, 3, and 4 rearranged thus: 3b, 4, 2, 3a

^c Ch 22.1 in Heb

^a Or before the judges

^b Or the judges condemn

^a Meaning of Heb uncertain

^a Gk Vg: Heb he

^b Or hornets: Meaning of Heb uncertain

^c Or Sea of Reeds

^a Heb He

^a Meaning of Heb uncertain

^b Or treaty, or testimony; Heb eduth

^a Or a cover

^b Or the cover

^c Or treaty, or testimony; Heb eduth

^a Meaning of Heb uncertain

^b Or treaty, or testimony; Heb eduth

^c Or the cover

^a Or treaty, or testimony; Heb eduth

^a The identity of several of these stones is uncertain

^b Or lapis lazuli

^a Meaning of Heb uncertain

^a Gk: Heb sashes, Aaron and his sons

^a Or treaty, or testimony; Heb eduth

^b Or the cover

^c Heb it

^a Or treaty, or testimony; Heb eduth

^b Or with the spirit of God

^c Or the cover

^d Heb he

^a Or fashioned it with a graving tool; Meaning of Heb uncertain

^a Or treaty, or testimony; Heb eduth

^b Gk Vg Compare Tg: Heb Today ordain yourselves

^a Heb YHWH; see note at 3.15

^a Heb YHWH; see note at 3.15

^b Or for thousands

^c Heb Asherim

^a Gk Theodotion Vg Tg: Meaning of Heb uncertain

^b Heb words

^c Or treaty, or testimony; Heb eduth

^a Meaning of Heb uncertain

^b Or the cover

^a Or the spirit of God

^a Meaning of Heb uncertain

^b Or a cover

^c Or the cover

^a Or treaty, or testimony; Heb eduth

^a The identification of several of these stones is uncertain

^b Or lapis lazuli

^c Meaning of Heb uncertain

^a Or treaty, or testimony; Heb eduth

^b Or the cover

^a Heb it