Ecclesiastes

Name, Authorship, and Canonical Status

The name of the book is derived from the word used for the teacher who speaks in the book. In Hebrew the word is Qohelet(h), meaning “gatherer,” though Luther translated it as “Preacher.” In the Septuagint (LXX), translators into ancient Greek used Ekklēsiastēs, which refers to a member of an assembly. That term, transliterated into Latin, became the book's title in Christian tradition.

Passages at the beginning and end of the book present it as a literary collection of teachings attributed to the primary speaker (1.2; 12.9–10), but suggest it was compiled by someone else. The editorial superscription (1.1) and a brief royal autobiography (1.12–2.26) associate the speaking subject with Solomon, the final king of Israel's short-lived United Monarchy (ca. 968–928 bce), who was renowned for his wisdom (see 1 Kings 3–4). Solomon, however, is never named explicitly, but only indirectly evoked as the “son of David, king in Jerusalem” (1.1; see also 1.12). Since the speaker does not elsewhere present himself as a king, and the editorial postscript describes him as a teacher rather than a king (12.9–14), the royal persona appears to be more rhetorical than historical.

Ancient rabbinic writings describe debates among Jewish religious leaders about Ecclesiastes. Apparently some questioned its sacred status by asking whether it, like other sacred texts, “makes the hands unclean” (see m. Yadayim 3.5). According to one rabbi, “Qohelet does not render the hands unclean because it contains only the wisdom of Solomon” (b. Meg. 7a). Others replied that Solomon spoke three thousand proverbs (1 Kings 5.12) but wrote down only a small portion of those, including Ecclesiastes, suggesting the latter's special, divine inspiration. Others questioned the book's intellectual value with expressions of discomfort about the book's contradictions. Still others challenged its moral value. The Pesikta de Rab Kahana reports that earlier sages considered suppressing the book because it might “encourage hedonism” (8.1) and “smacked of heresy” (24.14). Such debates are memories recorded at a later time, after Ecclesiastes had secured its place in the Jewish and Christian scriptures, and so might have as much to do with ongoing struggles over the book's controversial content.

Located in the Writings (Ketubim) section of the Tanakh and among the wisdom and poetical books of the Old Testament, Ecclesiastes shares much in content, forms, and concerns with other books of wisdom literature, such as Proverbs and Job. Ecclesiastes is also part of the Megillot—the five scrolls recited at major Jewish holidays—and is read at the annual fall festival of booths (Sukkot).

Literary History and Dating

While the message of Ecclesiastes is difficult and contested, its textual history is relatively uncomplicated. Despite its traditional associations with Solomon, most scholars date Ecclesiastes sometime during the late Persian and early Hellenistic periods (ca. 450–250 bce). The presence of two Persian loanwords (Heb pardes in 2.5 and pitgam in 8.11), the influence of Aramaic, and various grammatical characteristics of postexilic Hebrew strongly suggest that it was written after the rise of Persian rule across southwest Asia in 539 bce. The absence of Greek words leads some to date Ecclesiastes prior to Alexander the Great's conquest of the Levant (ca. 330 bce). However, other scholars detect the influence of Greek philosophical thought, and so date it to the early Hellenistic Period (ca. 300 bce). While there are no discernible references to historical events in Ecclesiastes, the frequent mentions of a volatile economy, intermittent interruptions in landholding by the authorities, and concerns about inheritances suggest a time of economic and cultural change which many scholars associate with the late Persian and early Hellenistic periods.

The earliest manuscript fragment of Ecclesiastes happens to be one of the oldest of the Dead Sea Scrolls, likely written around 175 bce (4QQoh^a). Allusions to Ecclesiastes in the Wisdom of Solomon and Sirach also show that it was widely known by the early second century bce. Another Dead Sea Scroll fragment shows that the Hebrew text circulated in multiple, slightly different forms in its earliest stages. The earliest known Greek translation, preserved in the Septuagint (LXX), reflects Hebrew syntax more clearly than other LXX texts and suggests a concern to facilitate rabbinic-style exegesis even in Greek-speaking Jewish communities that did not read Hebrew.

Structure and Content

Scholars have offered many different proposals concerning the book's overall structure. Perhaps the only area of agreement concerns the first and final chapters, which clearly frame the book's contents. Several elements in the first chapter repeat in the twelfth, including editorial remarks in 1.1 and 12.9–14, the motto (“vanity of vanities”) in 1.2 and 12.8, and poems comparing nature and humanity in 1.3–11 and 12.1–7. Different sections of the book achieve a sense of unity through various means. In 1.12–2.26, the narrator adopts a royal persona. Chapter 3 achieves coherence by focusing on timeliness and order. Chapter 7, a collection of proverbs, exhibits a formal unity. Although some themes, such as wisdom and folly, death, enjoyment, and inheritance, appear consistently throughout the book, some scholars propose a division between two halves: 1.1–6.9 focuses more on the conditions of the world, and 6.10–12.14 on human abilities and inabilities to comprehend these conditions. But coherence and structure appear unsystematically, in erratic patterns. This random, fleeting sense of unity fits the book's overall perspective on the world as without any underlying or overarching cohesion.

In contrast to traditional teachings as in Proverbs or Sirach, Ecclesiastes describes the world as a place of vibrant ephemerality. God is the agent responsible for constituting the world as a place of unpredictability, and creating humans with fundamental limitations. Ecclesiastes counsels readers not to strive for ideals of fullness, stability, or wisdom. Humans should instead invest in social relationships and productive labor while they are capable of enjoying their desires.

History of Interpretation and Reception

Ecclesiastes has a dynamic history of use and influence by religious and nonreligious communities. Many early Jewish and Christian interpreters used Solomon's life as a template through which to read the text. While the Talmud claims that Hezekiah and his scribes were responsible for Ecclesiastes (b. B. Bat. 14b–15a), rabbinic literature overwhelmingly presents the book as a product of Solomon's later years, after he repented of idolatry and became disillusioned with his life (cf. Song Rabbah and Qohelet Rabbah). One medieval Jewish tradition suggests that God took the throne from the elderly Solomon, who then wrote Ecclesiastes while struggling and homeless (Targum Qohelet 1.12). Most early and medieval Christian theologians transformed Ecclesiastes's impious teachings into a series of exhortations to ignore the transient material world and focus on the divine. Many modern readers, however, have found in Ecclesiastes deep resonances with contemporary philosophical movements such as existentialism and pessimism. After twentieth-century horrors such as the Shoah, Ecclesiastes's bitter but honest realism resonates with many who feel skeptical about the world's moral coherence.

Davis Hankins and Brennan W. Breed

¹ The words of the Teacher,^a the son of David, king in Jerusalem.

²Vanity of vanities, says the Teacher,^a

  vanity of vanities! All is vanity.

³What do people gain from all the toil

  at which they toil under the sun?

⁴A generation goes, and a generation comes,

  but the earth remains forever.

⁵The sun rises and the sun goes down,

  and hurries to the place where it rises.

⁶The wind blows to the south,

  and goes around to the north;

round and round goes the wind,

  and on its circuits the wind returns.

⁷All streams run to the sea,

  but the sea is not full;

to the place where the streams flow,

  there they continue to flow.

⁸All things^b are wearisome;

  more than one can express;

the eye is not satisfied with seeing,

  or the ear filled with hearing.

⁹What has been is what will be,

  and what has been done is what will be done;

there is nothing new under the sun.

  ¹⁰Is there a thing of which it is said,

“See, this is new”?

  It has already been,

in the ages before us.

  ¹¹The people of long ago are not remembered,

nor will there be any remembrance

  of people yet to come

by those who come after them.

¹²I, the Teacher,^a when king over Israel in Jerusalem, ¹³applied my mind to seek and to search out by wisdom all that is done under heaven; it is an unhappy business that God has given to human beings to be busy with. ¹⁴I saw all the deeds that are done under the sun; and see, all is vanity and a chasing after wind.^b

¹⁵What is crooked cannot be made straight,

  and what is lacking cannot be counted.

¹⁶I said to myself, “I have acquired great wisdom, surpassing all who were over Jerusalem before me; and my mind has had great experience of wisdom and knowledge.” ¹⁷And I applied my mind to know wisdom and to know madness and folly. I perceived that this also is but a chasing after wind.^b

¹⁸For in much wisdom is much vexation,

  and those who increase knowledge increase sorrow.

² I said to myself, “Come now, I will make a test of pleasure; enjoy yourself.” But again, this also was vanity. ²I said of laughter, “It is mad,” and of pleasure, “What use is it?” ³I searched with my mind how to cheer my body with wine—my mind still guiding me with wisdom—and how to lay hold on folly, until I might see what was good for mortals to do under heaven during the few days of their life. ⁴I made great works; I built houses and planted vineyards for myself; ⁵I made myself gardens and parks, and planted in them all kinds of fruit trees. ⁶I made myself pools from which to water the forest of growing trees. ⁷I bought male and female slaves, and had slaves who were born in my house; I also had great possessions of herds and flocks, more than any who had been before me in Jerusalem. ⁸I also gathered for myself silver and gold and the treasure of kings and of the provinces; I got singers, both men and women, and delights of the flesh, and many concubines.^c

⁹So I became great and surpassed all who were before me in Jerusalem; also my wisdom remained with me. ¹⁰Whatever my eyes desired I did not keep from them; I kept my heart from no pleasure, for my heart found pleasure in all my toil, and this was my reward for all my toil. ¹¹Then I considered all that my hands had done and the toil I had spent in doing it, and again, all was vanity and a chasing after wind,^b and there was nothing to be gained under the sun.

¹²So I turned to consider wisdom and madness and folly; for what can the one do who comes after the king? Only what has already been done. ¹³Then I saw that wisdom excels folly as light excels darkness.

¹⁴The wise have eyes in their head,

  but fools walk in darkness.

Yet I perceived that the same fate befalls all of them. ¹⁵Then I said to myself, “What happens to the fool will happen to me also; why then have I been so very wise?” And I said to myself that this also is vanity. ¹⁶For there is no enduring remembrance of the wise or of fools, seeing that in the days to come all will have been long forgotten. How can the wise die just like fools? ¹⁷So I hated life, because what is done under the sun was grievous to me; for all is vanity and a chasing after wind.^a

¹⁸I hated all my toil in which I had toiled under the sun, seeing that I must leave it to those who come after me ¹⁹—and who knows whether they will be wise or foolish? Yet they will be master of all for which I toiled and used my wisdom under the sun. This also is vanity. ²⁰So I turned and gave my heart up to despair concerning all the toil of my labors under the sun, ²¹because sometimes one who has toiled with wisdom and knowledge and skill must leave all to be enjoyed by another who did not toil for it. This also is vanity and a great evil. ²²What do mortals get from all the toil and strain with which they toil under the sun? ²³For all their days are full of pain, and their work is a vexation; even at night their minds do not rest. This also is vanity.

²⁴There is nothing better for mortals than to eat and drink, and find enjoyment in their toil. This also, I saw, is from the hand of God; ²⁵for apart from him^b who can eat or who can have enjoyment? ²⁶For to the one who pleases him God gives wisdom and knowledge and joy; but to the sinner he gives the work of gathering and heaping, only to give to one who pleases God. This also is vanity and a chasing after wind.^a

3

For everything there is a season, and a

  time for every matter under heaven:

²a time to be born, and a time to die;

  a time to plant, and a time to pluck up what is planted;

³a time to kill, and a time to heal;

  a time to break down, and a time to build up;

⁴a time to weep, and a time to laugh;

  a time to mourn, and a time to dance;

⁵a time to throw away stones, and a time to gather stones together;

  a time to embrace, and a time to refrain from embracing;

⁶a time to seek, and a time to lose;

  a time to keep, and a time to throw away;

⁷a time to tear, and a time to sew;

  a time to keep silence, and a time to speak;

⁸a time to love, and a time to hate;

  a time for war, and a time for peace.

⁹What gain have the workers from their toil? ¹⁰I have seen the business that God has given to everyone to be busy with. ¹¹He has made everything suitable for its time; moreover he has put a sense of past and future into their minds, yet they cannot find out what God has done from the beginning to the end. ¹²I know that there is nothing better for them than to be happy and enjoy themselves as long as they live; ¹³moreover, it is God's gift that all should eat and drink and take pleasure in all their toil. ¹⁴I know that whatever God does endures forever; nothing can be added to it, nor anything taken from it; God has done this, so that all should stand in awe before him. ¹⁵That which is, already has been; that which is to be, already is; and God seeks out what has gone by.^a

¹⁶Moreover I saw under the sun that in the place of justice, wickedness was there, and in the place of righteousness, wickedness was there as well. ¹⁷I said in my heart, God will judge the righteous and the wicked, for he has appointed a time for every matter, and for every work. ¹⁸I said in my heart with regard to human beings that God is testing them to show that they are but animals. ¹⁹For the fate of humans and the fate of animals is the same; as one dies, so dies the other. They all have the same breath, and humans have no advantage over the animals; for all is vanity. ²⁰All go to one place; all are from the dust, and all turn to dust again. ²¹Who knows whether the human spirit goes upward and the spirit of animals goes downward to the earth? ²²So I saw that there is nothing better than that all should enjoy their work, for that is their lot; who can bring them to see what will be after them?

⁴ Again I saw all the oppressions that are practiced under the sun. Look, the tears of the oppressed—with no one to comfort them! On the side of their oppressors there was power—with no one to comfort them. ²And I thought the dead, who have already died, more fortunate than the living, who are still alive; ³but better than both is the one who has not yet been, and has not seen the evil deeds that are done under the sun.

⁴Then I saw that all toil and all skill in work come from one person's envy of another. This also is vanity and a chasing after wind.^a

⁵Fools fold their hands

  and consume their own flesh.

⁶Better is a handful with quiet

  than two handfuls with toil,

and a chasing after wind.^a

⁷Again, I saw vanity under the sun: ⁸the case of solitary individuals, without sons or brothers; yet there is no end to all their toil, and their eyes are never satisfied with riches. “For whom am I toiling,” they ask, “and depriving myself of pleasure?” This also is vanity and an unhappy business.

⁹Two are better than one, because they have a good reward for their toil. ¹⁰For if they fall, one will lift up the other; but woe to one who is alone and falls and does not have another to help. ¹¹Again, if two lie together, they keep warm; but how can one keep warm alone? ¹²And though one might prevail against another, two will withstand one. A threefold cord is not quickly broken.

¹³Better is a poor but wise youth than an old but foolish king, who will no longer take advice. ¹⁴One can indeed come out of prison to reign, even though born poor in the kingdom. ¹⁵I saw all the living who, moving about under the sun, follow that^b youth who replaced the king;^{c 16}there was no end to all those people whom he led. Yet those who come later will not rejoice in him. Surely this also is vanity and a chasing after wind.^a

^5d Guard your steps when you go to the house of God; to draw near to listen is better than the sacrifice offered by fools; for they do not know how to keep from doing evil.^{e 2f}Never be rash with your mouth, nor let your heart be quick to utter a word before God, for God is in heaven, and you upon earth; therefore let your words be few.

³For dreams come with many cares, and a fool's voice with many words.

⁴When you make a vow to God, do not delay fulfilling it; for he has no pleasure in fools. Fulfill what you vow. ⁵It is better that you should not vow than that you should vow and not fulfill it. ⁶Do not let your mouth lead you into sin, and do not say before the messenger that it was a mistake; why should God be angry at your words, and destroy the work of your hands?

⁷With many dreams come vanities and a multitude of words;^g but fear God.

⁸If you see in a province the oppression of the poor and the violation of justice and right, do not be amazed at the matter; for the high official is watched by a higher, and there are yet higher ones over them. ⁹But all things considered, this is an advantage for a land: a king for a plowed field.^a

¹⁰The lover of money will not be satisfied with money; nor the lover of wealth, with gain. This also is vanity.

¹¹When goods increase, those who eat them increase; and what gain has their owner but to see them with his eyes?

¹²Sweet is the sleep of laborers, whether they eat little or much; but the surfeit of the rich will not let them sleep.

¹³There is a grievous ill that I have seen under the sun: riches were kept by their owners to their hurt, ¹⁴and those riches were lost in a bad venture; though they are parents of children, they have nothing in their hands. ¹⁵As they came from their mother's womb, so they shall go again, naked as they came; they shall take nothing for their toil, which they may carry away with their hands. ¹⁶This also is a grievous ill: just as they came, so shall they go; and what gain do they have from toiling for the wind? ¹⁷Besides, all their days they eat in darkness, in much vexation and sickness and resentment.

¹⁸This is what I have seen to be good: it is fitting to eat and drink and find enjoyment in all the toil with which one toils under the sun the few days of the life God gives us; for this is our lot. ¹⁹Likewise all to whom God gives wealth and possessions and whom he en ables to enjoy them, and to accept their lot and find enjoyment in their toil—this is the gift of God. ²⁰For they will scarcely brood over the days of their lives, because God keeps them occupied with the joy of their hearts.

⁶ There is an evil that I have seen under the sun, and it lies heavy upon humankind: ²those to whom God gives wealth, possessions, and honor, so that they lack nothing of all that they desire, yet God does not enable them to enjoy these things, but a stranger enjoys them. This is vanity; it is a grievous ill. ³A man may beget a hundred children, and live many years; but however many are the days of his years, if he does not enjoy life's good things, or has no burial, I say that a stillborn child is better off than he. ⁴For it comes into vanity and goes into darkness, and in darkness its name is covered; ⁵moreover it has not seen the sun or known anything; yet it finds rest rather than he. ⁶Even though he should live a thousand years twice over, yet enjoy no good—do not all go to one place?

⁷All human toil is for the mouth, yet the appetite is not satisfied. ⁸For what advantage have the wise over fools? And what do the poor have who know how to conduct themselves before the living? ⁹Better is the sight of the eyes than the wandering of desire; this also is vanity and a chasing after wind.^b

¹⁰Whatever has come to be has already been named, and it is known what human beings are, and that they are not able to dispute with those who are stronger. ¹¹The more words, the more vanity, so how is one the better? ¹²For who knows what is good for mortals while they live the few days of their vain life, which they pass like a shadow? For who can tell them what will be after them under the sun?

7

A good name is better than precious ointment,

  and the day of death, than the day of birth.

²It is better to go to the house of mourning

  than to go to the house of feasting;

for this is the end of everyone,

  and the living will lay it to heart.

³Sorrow is better than laughter,

  for by sadness of countenance the heart is made glad.

⁴The heart of the wise is in the house of mourning;

  but the heart of fools is in the house of mirth.

⁵It is better to hear the rebuke of the wise

  than to hear the song of fools.

⁶For like the crackling of thorns under a pot,

  so is the laughter of fools;

this also is vanity.

  ⁷Surely oppression makes the wise foolish,

and a bribe corrupts the heart.

  ⁸Better is the end of a thing than its beginning;

the patient in spirit are better than the proud in spirit.

  ⁹Do not be quick to anger,

for anger lodges in the bosom of fools.

  ¹⁰Do not say, “Why were the former days better than these?”

For it is not from wisdom that you ask this.

  ¹¹Wisdom is as good as an inheritance,

an advantage to those who see the sun.

  ¹²For the protection of wisdom is like the protection of money,

and the advantage of knowledge is that wisdom gives life to the one who possesses it.

  ¹³Consider the work of God;

who can make straight what he has made crooked?

¹⁴In the day of prosperity be joyful, and in the day of adversity consider; God has made the one as well as the other, so that mortals may not find out anything that will come after them.

¹⁵In my vain life I have seen everything; there are righteous people who perish in their righteousness, and there are wicked people who prolong their life in their evildoing. ¹⁶Do not be too righteous, and do not act too wise; why should you destroy yourself? ¹⁷Do not be too wicked, and do not be a fool; why should you die before your time? ¹⁸It is good that you should take hold of the one, without letting go of the other; for the one who fears God shall succeed with both.

¹⁹Wisdom gives strength to the wise more than ten rulers that are in a city.

²⁰Surely there is no one on earth so righteous as to do good without ever sinning.

²¹Do not give heed to everything that people say, or you may hear your servant cursing you; ²²your heart knows that many times you have yourself cursed others.

²³All this I have tested by wisdom; I said, “I will be wise,” but it was far from me. ²⁴That which is, is far off, and deep, very deep; who can find it out? ²⁵I turned my mind to know and to search out and to seek wisdom and the sum of things, and to know that wickedness is folly and that foolishness is madness. ²⁶I found more bitter than death the woman who is a trap, whose heart is snares and nets, whose hands are fetters; one who pleases God escapes her, but the sinner is taken by her. ²⁷See, this is what I found, says the Teacher,^a adding one thing to another to find the sum, ²⁸which my mind has sought repeatedly, but I have not found. One man among a thousand I found, but a woman among all these I have not found. ²⁹See, this alone I found, that God made human beings straightforward, but they have devised many schemes.

8

Who is like the wise man?

  And who knows the interpretation of a thing?

Wisdom makes one's face shine,

  and the hardness of one's countenance is changed.

²Keep^a the king's command because of your sacred oath. ³Do not be terrified; go from his presence, do not delay when the matter is unpleasant, for he does whatever he pleases. ⁴For the word of the king is powerful, and who can say to him, “What are you doing?” ⁵Whoever obeys a command will meet no harm, and the wise mind will know the time and way. ⁶For every matter has its time and way, although the troubles of mortals lie heavy upon them. ⁷Indeed, they do not know what is to be, for who can tell them how it will be? ⁸No one has power over the wind^b to restrain the wind,^b or power over the day of death; there is no discharge from the battle, nor does wickedness deliver those who practice it. ⁹All this I observed, applying my mind to all that is done under the sun, while one person exercises authority over another to the other's hurt.

¹⁰Then I saw the wicked buried; they used to go in and out of the holy place, and were praised in the city where they had done such things.^c This also is vanity. ¹¹Because sentence against an evil deed is not executed speedily, the human heart is fully set to do evil. ¹²Though sinners do evil a hundred times and prolong their lives, yet I know that it will be well with those who fear God, because they stand in fear before him, ¹³but it will not be well with the wicked, neither will they prolong their days like a shadow, because they do not stand in fear before God.

¹⁴There is a vanity that takes place on earth, that there are righteous people who are treated according to the conduct of the wicked, and there are wicked people who are treated according to the conduct of the righteous. I said that this also is vanity. ¹⁵So I commend enjoyment, for there is nothing better for people under the sun than to eat, and drink, and enjoy themselves, for this will go with them in their toil through the days of life that God gives them under the sun.

¹⁶When I applied my mind to know wisdom, and to see the business that is done on earth, how one's eyes see sleep neither day nor night, ¹⁷then I saw all the work of God, that no one can find out what is happening under the sun. However much they may toil in seeking, they will not find it out; even though those who are wise claim to know, they cannot find it out.

⁹ All this I laid to heart, examining it all, how the righteous and the wise and their deeds are in the hand of God; whether it is love or hate one does not know. Everything that confronts them ²is vanity,^a since the same fate comes to all, to the righteous and the wicked, to the good and the evil,^b to the clean and the unclean, to those who sacrifice and those who do not sacrifice. As are the good, so are the sinners; those who swear are like those who shun an oath. ³This is an evil in all that happens under the sun, that the same fate comes to everyone. Moreover, the hearts of all are full of evil; madness is in their hearts while they live, and after that they go to the dead. ⁴But whoever is joined with all the living has hope, for a living dog is better than a dead lion. ⁵The living know that they will die, but the dead know nothing; they have no more reward, and even the memory of them is lost. ⁶Their love and their hate and their envy have already perished; never again will they have any share in all that happens under the sun.

⁷Go, eat your bread with enjoyment, and drink your wine with a merry heart; for God has long ago approved what you do. ⁸Let your garments always be white; do not let oil be lacking on your head. ⁹Enjoy life with the wife whom you love, all the days of your vain life that are given you under the sun, because that is your portion in life and in your toil at which you toil under the sun. ¹⁰Whatever your hand finds to do, do with your might; for there is no work or thought or knowledge or wisdom in Sheol, to which you are going.

¹¹Again I saw that under the sun the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, nor bread to the wise, nor riches to the intelligent, nor favor to the skillful; but time and chance happen to them all. ¹²For no one can anticipate the time of disaster. Like fish taken in a cruel net, and like birds caught in a snare, so mortals are snared at a time of calamity, when it suddenly falls upon them.

¹³I have also seen this example of wisdom under the sun, and it seemed great to me. ¹⁴There was a little city with few people in it. A great king came against it and besieged it, building great siegeworks against it. ¹⁵Now there was found in it a poor wise man, and he by his wisdom delivered the city. Yet no one remembered that poor man. ¹⁶So I said, “Wisdom is better than might; yet the poor man's wisdom is despised, and his words are not heeded.”

¹⁷The quiet words of the wise are more to be heeded

  than the shouting of a ruler among fools.

¹⁸Wisdom is better than weapons of war,

  but one bungler destroys much good.

10

Dead flies make the perfumer's

  ointment give off a foul odor;

so a little folly outweighs wisdom and honor.

  ²The heart of the wise inclines to the right,

but the heart of a fool to the left.

  ³Even when fools walk on the road, they lack sense,

and show to everyone that they are fools.

  ⁴If the anger of the ruler rises against you, do not leave your post,

for calmness will undo great offenses.

⁵There is an evil that I have seen under the sun, as great an error as if it proceeded from the ruler: ⁶folly is set in many high places, and the rich sit in a low place. ⁷I have seen slaves on horseback, and princes walking on foot like slaves.

⁸Whoever digs a pit will fall into it;

  and whoever breaks through a wall will be bitten by a snake.

⁹Whoever quarries stones will be hurt by them;

  and whoever splits logs will be endangered by them.

¹⁰If the iron is blunt, and one does not whet the edge,

  then more strength must be exerted;

but wisdom helps one to succeed.

  ¹¹If the snake bites before it is charmed,

there is no advantage in a charmer.

¹²Words spoken by the wise bring them favor,

  but the lips of fools consume them.

¹³The words of their mouths begin in foolishness,

  and their talk ends in wicked madness;

¹⁴yet fools talk on and on.

  No one knows what is to happen,

and who can tell anyone what the future holds?

  ¹⁵The toil of fools wears them out,

for they do not even know the way to town.

¹⁶Alas for you, O land, when your king is a servant,^a

  and your princes feast in the morning!

¹⁷Happy are you, O land, when your king is a nobleman,

  and your princes feast at the proper time—

for strength, and not for drunkenness!

  ¹⁸Through sloth the roof sinks in,

and through indolence the house leaks.

  ¹⁹Feasts are made for laughter;

wine gladdens life,

  and money meets every need.

²⁰Do not curse the king, even in your thoughts,

  or curse the rich, even in your bedroom;

for a bird of the air may carry your voice,

  or some winged creature tell the matter.

11

Send out your bread upon the waters,

  for after many days you will get it back.

²Divide your means seven ways, or even eight,

  for you do not know what disaster may happen on earth.

³When clouds are full,

  they empty rain on the earth;

whether a tree falls to the south or to the north,

  in the place where the tree falls, there it will lie.

⁴Whoever observes the wind will not sow;

  and whoever regards the clouds will not reap.

⁵Just as you do not know how the breath comes to the bones in the mother's womb, so you do not know the work of God, who makes everything.

⁶In the morning sow your seed, and at evening do not let your hands be idle; for you do not know which will prosper, this or that, or whether both alike will be good.

⁷Light is sweet, and it is pleasant for the eyes to see the sun.

⁸Even those who live many years should rejoice in them all; yet let them remember that the days of darkness will be many. All that comes is vanity.

⁹Rejoice, young man, while you are young, and let your heart cheer you in the days of your youth. Follow the inclination of your heart and the desire of your eyes, but know that for all these things God will bring you into judgment.

¹⁰Banish anxiety from your mind, and put away pain from your body; for youth and the dawn of life are vanity.

¹² Remember your creator in the days of your youth, before the days of trouble come, and the years draw near when you will say, “I have no pleasure in them”; ²before the sun and the light and the moon and the stars are darkened and the clouds return with^a the rain; ³in the day when the guards of the house tremble, and the strong men are bent, and the women who grind cease working because they are few, and those who look through the windows see dimly; ⁴when the doors on the street are shut, and the sound of the grinding is low, and one rises up at the sound of a bird, and all the daughters of song are brought low; ⁵when one is afraid of heights, and terrors are in the road; the almond tree blossoms, the grasshopper drags itself along^b and desire fails; because all must go to their eternal home, and the mourners will go about the streets; ⁶before the silver cord is snapped,^c and the golden bowl is broken, and the pitcher is broken at the fountain, and the wheel broken at the cistern, ⁷and the dust returns to the earth as it was, and the breath^d returns to God who gave it. ⁸Vanity of vanities, says the Teacher;^e all is vanity.

⁹Besides being wise, the Teacher^e also taught the people knowledge, weighing and studying and arranging many proverbs. ¹⁰The Teacher^e sought to find pleasing words, and he wrote words of truth plainly.

¹¹The sayings of the wise are like goads, and like nails firmly fixed are the collected sayings that are given by one shepherd.^{f 12}Of anything beyond these, my child, beware. Of making many books there is no end, and much study is a weariness of the flesh.

¹³The end of the matter; all has been heard. Fear God, and keep his commandments; for that is the whole duty of everyone. ¹⁴For God will bring every deed into judgment, including^g every secret thing, whether good or evil.

1.1: Editor's introduction. The Teacher (Heb “qohelet”) is the title adopted by the primary speaker in the book (see vv. 2,12), referred to in these notes as Qohelet. Although the Hebrew form is a feminine singular participle that literally means a female “gatherer,” it is typically treated as a masculine subject, as here where the speaker is characterized as son of David, king in Jerusalem. “Son of David” could refer to any descendant of David (cf. 2 Chr 32.33), but traditionally indicates Solomon, who succeeded David on the throne. Solomon is closely associated with wisdom (see 1 Kings 3–4) and other poetical and wisdom books including Proverbs and the Song of Songs. The association with Solomon is relevant for the royal autobiography in 1.12–2.26, but subsequently fades as Qohelet speaks as a sage (see 12.9–10) rather than as a king.

1.2: The book's motto. Repeated at the end of the book in 12.8. Vanity (Heb “hebel”) occurs thirty-seven times in Ecclesiastes, and is perhaps its most important term. The Heb word describes wind, breath, and vapor, but often refers metaphorically to the fleeting nature of such things as life or beauty (e.g., Job 7.16; Pss 39.5; 78.33; Prov 31.30), the ineffective character of knowledge, labor, or wealth (e.g., Job 9.29; 21.34; Ps 94.11; Prov 13.11), or the unreliability and emptiness of non-Israelite gods and peoples (e.g., Deut 32.21; Isa 30.7; Lam 4.17). Qohelet uses “hebel” in similar ways; but “breath,” though fleeting, is constitutive of life itself. By recognizing and embracing the reality of this condition, enjoyment of life is possible. Vanity of vanities, a superlative construction, like “holy of holies” for the holiest space.

1.3–11: Qohelet's introductory poem. The poem focuses on endless activity and striving without finality, the ephemerality of life, the inevitable finality of death, and the ultimate decay of all that exists (cf. 9.11–12). 3: Gain (Heb “yitron”) is primarily an economic term, often translated as value or profit. The question appears to be rhetorical, assuming the answer, “none.” Toil is often a negative term for hard or oppressive labor (see 4.6,8), but Qohelet also uses it in more neutral or even positive references to productive labor (see 2.21; 3.13; 5.18–19). Under the sun is similar to “under the heavens” (1.13–14), which refers to everything in the world (see 2.3; 3.1; Gen 1.9; Ex 17.14). Qohelet usually uses under the sun more specifically to refer to human experiences and knowledge “under the heavens.” This question reappears, and is answered in different ways, in 2.10–11,22–23; 3.9; 5.16. 4–11: A beautiful example of Hebrew lyric poetry, whose repetitive character evokes what it describes: the ephemerality of everything and of the finality and oblivion brought by death. These conditions extend from the natural world to the human intellect, and from the past to the future. 7–8: The human eye and ear are never filled, or at capacity: like the earth's rivers, they continue to function without a break until the moment of death. 9–11: In light of vv. 3–8, there is nothing new suggests that the world will always be like this—incomplete and constantly moving. The denial of remembrance (v. 11; see Eccl 9.5) is at odds with the importance of preserving memory in many biblical texts (e.g., Deut 5.15; 6.12; 8.11). A provocative tension exists between the idea that there is nothing new and the denial of remembrance.

1.12–2.26: A royal pursuit of satisfaction. Creatively recalling accounts of royal courts in the ancient Near East, Qohelet adopts the persona of a king who enjoys unlimited access to precious objects and pleasurable activities. In this persona, Qohelet undertakes a thought experiment to test the hypothesis that “all is vanity” (v. 14). Qohelet discovers that the imperial desire for pleasure and posterity is frustrated by “vanity” that marks everything (2.11) and mortality that faces everyone (2.15–17). The king concludes that he hates life (2.17) and labor (2.18) and is left with despair (2.20) about the pain and vexation of human life “under the sun” (2.22–23). 1.13–14: The experiment's inevitable conclusion, stated at the outset. 13: Under heaven, see 1.3n. Unhappy business, better “disturbing preoccupation,” a condition that Qohelet describes repeatedly (see 3.14; 4.8). 14: Under the sun, see 1.3n. Chasing after wind describes a futile endeavor, but the Heb word concerns shepherding, suggesting that this is more about gathering or guarding the wind than chasing after it (cf. Hos 12.2; Sir 34.1–2). 15: With similar language, 7.13 attributes such crookedness to God. 16: If Qohelet speaks as Solomon, all who were over Jerusalem before me would be a rather modest comparison with David alone, or perhaps a reference to the regimes of Canaanite rulers prior to David's conquest of the city. 17: Sages do not usually attempt to know madness and folly, but perhaps any search for truth must also seek to comprehend errors, even reaching truth through failure, as in Qohelet's search for fulfillment in hedonism (2.4–10). See also 2.3,12; 7.16–18. 18: Qohelet uses proverbs in various ways (cf. v. 15). Whereas he seems to endorse this proverb, elsewhere he quotes proverbs that seem at odds with his teachings (e.g., 2.14). See 6.10–7.14n. 2.3: See 1.17n. 4–11: In their inscriptions, ancient Near Eastern rulers catalogued accomplishments to display their status and to elicit recognition. The conclusion in v. 11 undercuts this purpose and suggests a parody of royal propaganda and the excessive acquisitions of kings. The verse echoes phrases from 1.2–17. 12–21: The equalizing effects of death. 14–15: The same fate, i.e., death. A view contrary to Prov 8.35–36; 9.11; etc., which claim that wisdom prolongs life and protects from death. 16–17: No enduring remembrance, see 1.9–11n. 18–21: Just as there is lack of control in life, so in death one does not know if heirs will be wise or foolish. 22–23: What do mortals get? See 1.3n. A negative conclusion to the efforts described in 2.1–21. 24–26: The first of numerous passages where Qohelet commends enjoyment in eating and drinking (cf. 3.12–15,22; 5.18; 9.7–10). After characterizing all the products of his labor as vanity (v. 11), and concluding that he hated all his toil (v. 18), Qohelet surprisingly proclaims that humans can also find enjoyment in their toil. Elsewhere, Qohelet states his perspective more clearly (see 9.1–12n.). 24: The hand of God, that is, such enjoyment is not within one's own control but something God determines. 26: God can arbitrarily give the possibility of enjoyment to those who are somehow favored, but not to the sinner, a term that may simply mean “the one who misses out,” the loser (cf. 7.26; 9.2,18; Prov 8.36; 13.22; 14.21; 19.2; 20.2). Thus the joy that Qohelet commends remains marked by the conditions of vanity (cf. 1.2n.).

3.1–15: The cause of human desire. 1–8: A poem asserting there is “a time” for twenty-eight activities, presented in fourteen antithetical pairs. Although some pairs are closely associated (e.g., those in v. 4), there is no clear structure other than a recurring contrast between life and death.1: Matter, perhaps better “purpose” or “volition” or “pleasure” (cf. 5.4; 8.3; 12.1). 9: See 1.3n. 10–15: A commentary on 3.1–8. People generally have a sense that suitable times exist for particular events, but the unpredictability of future conditions prevents anyone from being certain about which moment is right for which event. 10: Business, see 1.13n. 11: Suitable, lit., “beautiful.” A sense of past and future, an expansionistic translation of one Heb word (“ʿolam”), usually translated “eternity.” Humans may sense that their lives participate in a divine drama that they cannot fully grasp, but this is no mere limitation; it is rather a necessary consequence of their God-given condition. This condition prevents full knowledge, yet keeps humans busy (v. 10), and relates in some way to their capacities to be happy and enjoy and take pleasure (vv. 12–13). 13: See 2.24n.,26n. 14: Endures forever, another expansionistic translation of Heb “ʿolam” (see v. 11n.); lit., “everything God does is for eternity.” God created this unalterable condition so that humans will feel fear before God. Qohelet thus correlates the human fear of God, the desire to know what cannot be known, and the state of being perpetually occupied (v. 10). 15b: A terse summary of Qohelet's commentary on the poem in 3.1–8; lit., “God seeks what is pursued.” Qohelet may mean that God designed the entire cosmos, including humans, to be in constant motion, with no clear goal (cf. 1.3–11); thus, God aims to produce the ceaseless act of pursuit. In relation to 3.10–15, God has created humans as perpetually desirous beings, driven to pursue life passionately, and capable of enjoying the pursuit.

3.16–22: One fate for all. Qohelet asserts that there must be a final judgment of the righteous and wicked, but concludes that no one can know anything about it. People do know, however, that humans and animals alike (v. 19) “go to one place”— “the dust” (v. 20). Sheol is the traditional Hebrew name for the dusty underworld into which all people were assumed to descend at death. Some may believe in a beatific afterlife for humans (v. 21), but Qohelet refuses to speculate. 22: As in 2.24–26, even though the future remains unknowable and no one can see beyond their death, humans remain capable of enjoying their labor while living.

4.1–16: Labor and relationships. A series of comparisons highlighting relative advantages that do not yield lasting differences. This chapter's four main sections (vv. 1–3,4–6,7–12,13–16) all focus on the relationships among individuals, their labor, and other people. 1: Oppressions refers to the powerful seizing the wages and goods of the poor (Deut 24.14; 1 Sam 12.3–4; Jer 21.12; Hos 12.7; Am 4.1; Mic 2.2). No one to comfort, a refrain in Lam 1. Oppression damages the oppressor and the oppressed: both lack comfort. 2–3: The dead … more fortunate. Oppression, especially when unwitnessed, can be so severe as to make death preferable to life. A rare perspective in the Bible, but also found in Job (see Job 3). 4–6: Envy can lead to highly productive labor, but is implicitly criticized by the two proverbs in vv. 5–6. On their own, the proverbs appear to contrast foolish laziness and frenetic toil with a state of lesser productivity that includes leisure. In this context, they teach that envy combines the worst of foolishness and mania: it leads those who are envious to turn against others and on themselves in self-consuming, cannibalistic violence. 4: Vanity, 1.2n. Chasing after wind, 1.14n. 6: Many Heb proverbs are “better … than” sayings (see v. 13; Prov 12.9; 15.16–17; 16.18; etc.). 7–12: Joint commitments make possible a reward unavailable to isolated individuals. 8: Unhappy business, see 1.13n. 13–16: A somewhat obscure comparison that seems to say that even when advantages exist and surprising reversals occur, fleetingness and oblivion are unavoidable.

5.1–7: Words and deeds. The gap between what people say and what they do creates many problems, especially with religious practices (cf. Deut 23.21–22; Sir 18.2). Qohelet associates sacrifices, vows, and divinatory practices with fools. 1: House of God, temple. For they do not know may mean that fools can be so foolish that they are unaware when their sacrifices produce harm. 3: Dreams in the ancient Near East were understood to be a potential source of divine revelation that often had to be interpreted by a religious expert (cf. Gen 40:5–23). At times, dreams were also denigrated as a worthless and easily manipulated medium of divination (cf. Sir 34:1–3). Qohelet cautions the reader about the extreme difficulty of discerning the meanings of dreams. 4–5: A religious vow promises some future deed with words, and thus exemplifies the distance between words and deeds. Qohelet advises against vowing, because humans usually fail to match deeds to words. 7: Fear of God in the wisdom tradition refers to a reverent openness to divine instruction that is the first step to becoming a sage (cf. Prov 9.10). It can also describe awestruck terror in the face of God's overwhelming presence (cf. Job 9.35).

5.8–6.9: Disconnections between conditions of life and enjoyment. Objects of desire do not bring the satisfaction they promise (5.10; 6.2,7). Riches can cause restlessness (5.12) or even harm (5.13). Humans are capable of enjoyment, but it depends upon a divine agent (5.18–20). The pleasure human beings can experience never escapes “the wandering of desire” or the conditions of “vanity and a chasing after wind” (6.9). 5.8: This saying may refer to a corrupt bureaucratic hierarchy or, more generally, to those who desire positions of status and power over others. 9: An obscure verse that apparently praises agricultural production. See also 11.1–6n. 11–17: Qohelet critiques the accumulation of wealth. See also 10.16–11.6n. 15: Naked, see Job 1.21. 16: See 1.3n. 18–19: See 3.13n. 20: The verb brood has to do with remembering. Those who enjoy will not remember much of their days, not because enjoyment enables escapism, but because the enjoyers are so occupied with finding joy in their toil (see v. 18) that they overlook much that would otherwise trouble them. 6.2: At the beginning of his story, Job is an example of someone who lacks nothing yet cannot enjoy; see Job 1.1–5. 3: No burial: to die unburied was considered an accursed condition (Deut 28.25–26; 1 Kings 14.10–11; Jer 16.4). Stillborn, see 4.3n. 6: One place, see 3.20. 9: Sight of the eyes … wandering of desire, the contrast appears to be between what is present and the insatiable appetite for what is not. Contrast 11.9, which commends following the “desire” of one's eyes. Vanity, 1.2n. Chasing after wind, 1.14n.

6.10–7.14: Life's missing ending makes the world inscrutable. Qohelet explains a paradox: in the story of a person's life, death is the end, but the dead no longer comprehend. Thus, humans are barred from fully understanding their lives (6.12). This section uses the word “good/better” (Heb “tob”) nine times, but the repetition of “better than” sayings is ironic, since one does not know for certain what is better. By juxtaposing traditional wisdom literature forms and content (cf. 7.1a) with striking affirmations of death's superiority to life (cf. 7.1b), Qohelet reframes traditional wisdom and undermines notions of a benevolent cosmic order. 6.11–12: The implied answers to these questions are negative. Because the human lifespan is limited, people cannot know the long-term effects of their actions and thus cannot determine what is better. Qohelet underscores the role of death in this impossibility of knowing (see also 3.21; 7.14). 7.1: The first poetic line cleverly plays on the words name (Heb “shem”) and ointment (“shemen”), so that the line sounds like it repeats or mirrors itself (“tob shem mishemen tob”). The high value of a good reputation is a traditional wisdom observation (cf. Prov 22.1). Contrary to Qohelet, traditional wisdom exalts life (the day of birth) over death (cf. Prov 8.35–36). But here Qohelet's critique of traditional wisdom is most radical: since one's reputation is only fully established after death, the day of death must be better. 2–4: Qohelet draws further, shocking conclusions from the logical implications of the traditional wisdom teaching in v. 1. If a memorialized name is better than celebratory oil, then a funeral (house of mourning) is better than a wedding (house of feasting, v. 2), and likewise sorrow excels laughter (v. 3), as mourning surpasses joy (mirth, v. 4). 3: Heart is made glad: since the Heb word “leb” literally means heart, but primarily indicates the capacity for thought, and the word translated glad is “tob” (“good,” “better”), the words might be translated “makes the mind better.” Meditation upon death, which is the common denominator of humanity (v. 2), sharpens mental acumen. 5–7: These sayings focus on folly and seem to hew more closely to traditional wisdom. Yet the awkward insertion of this also is vanity (v. 6) is ambiguous, and disturbs the passage's clarity. This phrase could describe the laughter of fools, but it could introduce Qohelet's uncertainty about any distinction between the foolish and the wise (cf. 6.12). In v. 7 oppression turns the wise into the foolish, which underscores the instability of these categories. 8–9: Qohelet returns to the claim that the end (i.e., death) is preferable to the beginning, and thus the patient who wait to render judgment excel those anxious to jump to conclusions, as in v. 9. Proud in spirit, better “anxious.” 10: This saying inverts the nostalgic preference for the former days found in traditional wisdom literature (e.g., Job 8.8–10; 15.7; Sir 39.1), and suggests that personified Wisdom herself does not encourage a quest to recover a pristine past (contrast Prov 8.22–31). Qohelet consistently reorients the wise toward endings rather than beginnings (cf. v. 8). 11–12: These sayings reiterate traditional teachings about Wisdom, saying that she is as precious and even more life-giving than money (cf. Prov 3.13–18; Job 28.15–19). Yet Qohelet's anxiety concerning inheritance (cf. 2.18–23) reappears: Wisdom is only an advantage for the living (those who see the sun; see 1.14n.). The limited worth of money implies that wisdom also has its limits. 13–14: Ancient Israelite scribes associated “straightness” or “uprightness” with moral purity (Prov 11.5) and good teaching (Prov 8.8–9), and attributed the existence of “straight” teachings and actions to God's activity (Prov 3.6). Evil human actions, by contrast, are responsible for crookedness (Prov 11.20; 21.8). But here, God has made the world crooked (lit., “made unjust”; cf. 1.15), and humans cannot fix it.

7.15–22: Do not seek pure, ideal things. Traditional wisdom assures students that righteous lives result in wealth and longevity, while the foolish quickly perish (cf. Prov 16.22). Surprisingly, Qohelet advises against striving for personal perfection, since overly righteous people tend towards self-destruction. Some level of personal moral failure is required to function in human society. 16: If you do not accept your own inevitable failures, you will destroy yourself. 17: One must not be overly wicked either, as foolishness often leads to premature death. 18–20: The one who fears God (see 5.7n.) will reject the search for pure righteousness, and accept both wisdom and folly as necessary parts of life. This will help one accept the failures of others as well, even a servant's offhanded criticism. 19: Cf. Prov 21.22.

7.23–8.1:The frustrated search for cosmic meaning and order. This passage shares many themes and terms with the royal autobiography in 1.12–2.26. Qohelet embarks on a mental quest to comprehend the “sum” of the world, but finds instead that the world is fragmented, conflicted, with a dynamism that prevents it from being understood as a whole. 7.26: Some read this verse as a misogynistic attack against women in general. More likely, Qohelet alludes to the specific misogynist metaphors commonly found in wisdom literature that personify folly and wisdom as female icons. Folly appears as a bitter, “strange woman” (cf. Prov 5.3–4). Wisdom is described as bonds and fetters that sages should willingly seek (cf. Sir 6.24–31). Qohelet rejects both ideals in 7.16–17, only to admit that he pursued both wisdom and folly (7.25), before disparaging such pursuit as a trap. 27–28: Qohelet reiterates that to comprehend the world as a summative whole is impossible, not merely difficult. Like v. 26, some understand v. 28 as a general misogynistic statement about the rarity of wise men and the impossibility of a wise woman. In this passage, however, it may refer to the woman from v. 26. Thus, after initially assuming that he could not find Wisdom because she was “far off” (vv. 23–24), Qohelet concludes that there is no such ideal Woman to be found (cf. Job 28 on the failed search for wisdom). 29: The conclusion of Qohelet's quest: since God made the world crooked (cf. 1.15; 7.13), the straightforward human being's attempts to understand it are doomed to failure (reading “sum of things” with the LXX, as in v. 25, for schemes). 8.1: Knowing that no one is certain how to interpret a thing (or “word,” “matter”) is itself wisdom, and enables one to enjoy life (makes one's face shine) and compels one to exchange arrogance (hardness of one's countenance) for humility.

8.2–9: The arbitrary powers and limitations of authority. Monarchs lack the humility taught in 8.1, so those working for royalty must obey without questioning. Yet no one, not even the king, knows what is to be or can forestall death or constrain conflict. Human authority pretends to ultimate power, which hurts people. 2: Sacred oath, an oath sworn in the name of God (Ex 22.11; 2 Sam 21.7; 1 Kings 2.43). 5b–7: Time and way, lit., “time and judgment” (cf. 3.1,16–17). There is a proper time and a proper judgment; unfortunately, no one knows when and how until after the fact. 8: Power over the wind to restrain it, or, “power over the (life-)breath to hold back the (life-)breath.” No one has the power to avert death. No discharge from battle, that is, from death. No one can send a substitute to take his or her place.

8.10–17: God's arbitrary powers and the limitations of wisdom. Like human rulers (vv. 2–9), God makes decisions that seem arbitrary and unquestionable. For example, wicked people are powerful, praised, and properly buried in the same places where they committed atrocities (v. 10). Qohelet briefly affirms divine justice (vv. 12–13) but then asserts that human experience finds no evidence of it (v. 14). Instead of endorsing hedonism (cf. 2.1–26), however, Qohelet commends enjoyment (see 9.1–12n.) which can accompany people even amidst their toil (v. 15). Since God's work makes it impossible even for the wise to understand the world (vv. 16–17), enjoyment becomes possible once one sees that the world cannot make sense. 10: Holy place, a sanctuary, likely the Jerusalem Temple. Cf. Job 21.32–33. Vanity, 1.2n. 11: Cf. Job 21.19–21. 13: Like a shadow, a common image of transitoriness (6.12; Pss 102.11; 109.23; Job 8.9; 14.2; 17.7). 14: Vanity, in the sense of an incomprehensible situation. 15: Enjoyment, cf. 2.24; 3.13; 5.18; 9.7. The KJV famously translates “to eat, and to drink, and to be merry.”

9.1–12: Accept that life is finite, and find joy in passionate engagement. All humans die, no matter their accomplishments (vv. 1–3,11–12), so everyone's life is equally “breath” (Heb “hebel”; cf. 1.2n.). Yet life is not worthless: life is preferable to death (vv. 4–6), even for those who suffer (a dog vs. a royal lion, v. 4). Since humans have limited life spans and no evident lasting rewards for good behavior, they need not measure themselves against universal standards of piety, wealth, or accomplishment. Instead, humans can immerse themselves in their intimate relationships, labor, leisure, and enjoyment of the material world (such as eating and drinking; vv. 7–9; cf. 2.24–26; 3.12–14,22; 8.15; 11.6–10; 12.1). This is no exhortation to hedonism or resignation: the limitations of human life demand constant, passionate engagement in the activities that one finds compelling (v. 10). 2: Vanity, see 1.2n. The Heb (and LXX) reads “everything” instead of “vanity” (see textual note a), suggesting that what we can see, in all its incompleteness and continual change, is all there is: do not look to a transcendent plane to solve the universe's deep questions. As are the good … sinners: While evil and good are distinguishable in their effects, everyone dies. Ethical living does not earn lasting benefits. 4: Hope, better, “assurance.” 7–10: A similar passage in the ancient Mesopotamian epic Gilgamesh suggests that the advice to enjoy life in the full knowledge of certain death was a piece of folk wisdom. Feasting rather than fasting, clean garments, anointing with oil, and sexual activity were associated with joy and the cessation of mourning (2 Sam 12.20,24). 9: Wife, or “woman.” Vain life, i.e., the ephemeral and uncontrollable nature of life. Sheol, the abode of the dead. 11: Qohelet refutes the cause-and-effect or act-consequence relationship central to traditional wisdom literature.

9.13–10.15: Parable and proverbs on wisdom and folly. 9.13–16: This example of wisdom refers to no known historical event. The point is that the difference between wisdom and folly does not guarantee that anything in life will turn out differently because of them. 15–16: Delivered could be translated “might have delivered.” The parable may be about how a poor wise man's advice was ignored because of his low socioeconomic status. 9.17–18: Two proverbs that comment directly on the parable. 10.1: A more general saying about how easily something valuable can be destroyed by something less valuable. 2: In many cultures the direction right is associated with positive things and left with negative ones (see Gen 48.13–18; but cf. Prov 3.16). 4: Leave … undo, the same Heb verb. 5–7: When so little can overtake so much, the world easily becomes topsy-turvy (see similar descriptions in Prov 30.21–23; Isa 3.4–5). The distress of wisdom writers that social orders should be overturned is also found in Egyptian and Mesopotamian texts. 8–11: Maxims describing experiences where one's action unexpectedly proves harmful. The saying in 8a is similar to Prov 26.27a, where it suggests appropriate comeuppance to the schemer. In these maxims, however, the emphasis seems to be on the uncertain outcomes of actions, as v. 14 makes explicit (see 3.22; 6.12; 8.7).

10.16–11.6: Living with risks. The vulnerability of a land to political arrangements is first addressed (10.16–20), then economic uncertainties and how best to cope (11.1–6). 10.16. Your king is a servant, or “your king is a boy.” The point is that an incompetent person has gained power (cf. 9.17–18; 10.5–6). 18–19: The house leaks, or “the house collapses”: this may be subversive political commentary in the guise of an innocuous proverb, since “house” can refer to a dynasty as well as a structure. 20: The Heb verb for curse simply means “to denigrate” or “to vilify.” The author warns against the very kinds of subversive activity suggested by the “inside jokes” of vv. 18–19. 11.1–6: A final exhortation to engage in productive labor amidst an uncertain world and the mysteries of life and prosperity. 1: Send out your bread upon the waters, an Egyptian wisdom text suggests that this is an exhortation to give charitably, though it might also be construed as pragmatic and metaphorical advice about diversifying risk through trade, as v. 2 suggests. 2: Seven … eight, the increasing numerical parallelism is a common poetic device. See Prov 6.16; 30.15–33; Am 1–2; Mic 5.5. 3–4: Clouds and wind are mysterious things that mortals do not control. The farmer who attempts to discern the perfect weather conditions to sow or to reap will never do so. 5: The images in this verse echo the surrounding verses. Breath is the same word as “wind” in v. 4. Mother, lit., “the full one,” linking pregnancy with the description of clouds filled with rain in v. 3. The reference to procreation echoes reproductive references to sowing and seed in vv. 4,6. 6: Sow your seed can also mean “to produce offspring”; after the mention of procreation in v. 5, this is an exhortation to productive and reproductive labor. Such activity in the full knowledge of uncertainty echoes the call to enjoyment in relationships and work advocated in 9.7–10.

11.7–8: In sum. The sensuous celebration of the pleasure of light is a variation on the repeated prescription to enjoy one's life in full knowledge of the coming days of darkness. As with other binary oppositions in the book, Qohelet teaches that the realities of light and darkness share one fundamental condition: vanity (see 1.2n.).

11.9–12.8: Qohelet's conclusion. 11.9–10: One should find joy by immediately pursuing one's passions (inclination of your heart) before it is too late to enjoy them. But, the Heb conjunction (“waw”) often means “and,” which seems better here, unless this comment is a gloss by a disapproving editor. The context rather suggests that God will hold people to account if they do not follow their desire. Thus anxiety and negativity (pain) should be brushed aside. 10: Vanity, here in the sense of ephemerality; cf. 1.2n. 12.1–8: An evocative series of images typically read as metaphors for death and the aging human body, or as literal descriptions of a decrepit house, a passing funeral, or even the apocalyptic end of the cosmos. Qohelet describes worsening weather (v. 2), terrified people abandoning public spaces (vv. 3–5a), a disordered natural world (v. 5b), precious and useful objects breaking (v. 6), and the components of the human body returning to their elemental state after death (v. 7). Together, they present a sense of ultimate deterioration that links the inevitable disintegration of the cosmos to that of human society and individual human bodies. Ultimately, Qohelet teaches a fundamental truth of the cosmos: nothing is stable; everything is open to transformation (v. 8). 1: The Heb for your creator (“boreʾeka”) sounds like the word “cistern (“bor”) in v. 6, and so may link the giving and the cessation of life. 2: The language of the darkening sky is reminiscent of prophetic eschatology (cf. Isa 5.30; 13.10; Ezek 32.7–8; Am 5.8; 8.9; Mic 3.6), but the following verses describe fatigue and cessation more than eschatological terror. 4: The imagery is obscure. In Hebrew idiom “sons of” or “daughters of” is a way of identifying a type of thing, as “sons of cattle” are simply “cattle.” So, “daughters of song” may refer to birds or to musical sounds. Perhaps v. 4 refers simply to the loss of hearing and the difficulty of distinguishing sounds. 5: The Hebrew is extremely difficult and the translation is uncertain. 6–7: Images of death. According to Gen 2.7, human beings are a conjunction of dirt and God's breath (here Heb “ruaḥ,” though a different word is used in Gen 2.7; cf. Gen 6.17; 7.15,22). Here, God's animating power of breath returns to God when the human stops breathing (cf. Ps 104.29b). 8: Qohelet quotes the opening motto of the book (see 1.2n.), thus performing the very circular repetition described by the introductory poem in 1.4–11.

12.9–14: Editorial conclusion. 9–12: A later editor judges that Qohelet's teachings in 1.2–12.8 are plain and true, pleasing and provocative. 9: The traditional work of a sage. 11: Mixed metaphors that are difficult to interpret but suggest intentional effort designed to organize disparate things, as goads assist a shepherd in collecting the flock, and nails are used to hold boards together. 12: A formulaic conclusion that appears to attempt to establish the authority of the text and warns against going beyond it to other texts. 13: The editor's exhortation to fear God, and keep his commandments is inconsistent with Qohelet's teachings. 14: The editor perhaps believes in an apocalyptic judgment (cf. Dan 12.1–4).

^a Heb Qoheleth, traditionally rendered Preacher

^b Or words

^a Heb Qoheleth, traditionally rendered Preacher

^b Or a feeding on wind. See Hos 12.1

^c Meaning of Heb uncertain

^a Or a feeding on wind. See Hos 12.1

^b Gk Syr: Heb apart from me

^a Heb what is pursued

^a Or a feeding on wind. See Hos 12.1

^b Heb the second

^c Heb him

^d Ch 4.17 in Heb

^e Cn: Heb they do not know how to do evil

^f Ch 5.1 in Heb

^g Meaning of Heb uncertain

^a Meaning of Heb uncertain

^b Or a feeding on wind. See Hos 12.1

^a Qoheleth, traditionally rendered Preacher

^a Heb I keep

^b Or breath

^c Meaning of Heb uncertain

^a Syr Compare Gk: Heb Everything that confronts them ²is everything

^b Gk Syr Vg: Heb lacks and the evil

^a Or a child

^a Or after ; Heb ‘ahar

^b Or is a burden

^c Syr Vg Compare Gk: Heb is removed

^d Or the spirit

^e Qoheleth, traditionally rendered Preacher

^f Meaning of Heb uncertain

^g Or into the judgment on